Empires, Barbarians, & Barbarian Empires

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East Asian Barbarians during the Zhou Dynasty 1046 B.C.E.-350 C.E.

Time	Events
1046-771 BCE	Realms of the Western Zhou Dynasty Click on image to enlarge it. Western Zhou (Chou) Dynasty (1046-771 BCE) The Zhou had originally begun as a barbarian, semi-nomadic tribe that lived to the west of the realms of the Shang dynasty. After a time, they had settled in the Wei River valley where they eventually became vassals of the Shang.1 In c.1046 BCE, the Ji family of the Zhou conquered the Shang dynasty (c.1500-c.1000 BCE), establishing the Zhou dynasty as the dominant monarchy under which Chinese civilization was united. Part of their success was the result of gaining the allegiance of disaffected city-states. The Shang had also been weakened due to their continual warfare with northern2 and eastern tribes.3 The kings of the Zhou dynasty had all of Chinese civilization united under their realm (at least until 470 BCE when the Zhou king became a mere figurehead and the realm in fact broke up). But, like the kings of the preceding Shang dynasty, the kings of the Zhou dynasty did not have the title of emperor. That was to come later. (China's first emperor was Qin Shi Huangdi (reigned 221-210 BCE)who was the first of the short-lived Qin (Ch'in) dynasty.) The first king of the Western-Zhou dynasty was King Wu of Zhou (reigned 1046-1043 BCE). By academic convention, the Zhou dynasty is split into the Western Zhou dynasty (1046-771 BCE) and the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770-256 BCE). During the period of the Western Zhou dynasty, the Zhou capital was the city of Hao in the Wei River valley. (See map at right.) The capitol city of the Eastern Zhou dynast was Luoyang (Lo-yang), well east of Hao. The early Western Zhou dynasty kings supported a strong army split into two major units: "the Six Armies of the west" and "the Eight Armies of Chengzhou (Chengchou)." The armies campaigned in the Loess Plateau, Ningxia (Ningchia) and the Yellow River floodplain.4 Early Western Zhou dynasty kings were constantly in wars with barbarians on behalf of their fiefs. Later Weatern Zhou dynasty kings' campaigns against the barbarians were less effective than those of the early kings. Western Zhou Civilisation & Barbarians Click on image to enlarge it and also see a supplemental map.   "The ancient Chinese used many words to designate foreigners. The foreigners were loosely distinguished as Tung-yi (Yi in the east), Hsi-Jung (Jung in the west), Nan-man (Man in the South), and Pei-Ti (Ti in the north)."     - Tan Chung, "On Sino-Centrism II: A Critique" in China Report, Vol. 9, No. 6, 30-51 (1973).   The Chinese had a variety of names for non-Chinese tribal peoples who lived beyond their borders. Some of these referred to a specific people and some were more generic. The following table explains some of these names as they were used during the Zhou dynasty. TABLE 1.  NON-CHINESE TRIBAL PEOPLE DURING THE WESTERN ZHUNG DYNASTY Chinese Name (Pinyin) Chinese Name (Wade-Giles) Non- Chinese Name Definition as Applied to Non-Chinese Tribal People Rong Jung "Western Barbarians" A broad term for the nomadic tribal people that roamed in the northwestern regions of the realm of the Chinese Zhou dynasty of China and adjacent territories outside the realm. They roamed in the land of what is now the modern provinces of Shaanxi (Shan-hsi), Gansu (Kan-su), and Ningxia (Ning-hsia).1A1 There are no ethnological distinctions known that can be made for the entire group as a whole other than to say that the people were non-Chinese. Quanrong Ch'uän Jung "Dog Jung"1Aa1 or "Western Dog Tribe"1Aa2 One of the three most powerful Rong (Jung) tribes.1Aa3 Ethnologically, they were Tibetan1Aa4 though they did not dwell in Tibet during the Zhou dynasty. (But they did move to the fringes of the Tibeten Plateau near the Kunlun Mountains at some time during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE).1Aa5) Their language is classified as part of the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages family.1Aa6 Yunrong Yün Jung - One of the three most powerful Rong (Jung) tribes.1Ab1 Jiangrong Chieng Jung - One of the three most powerful Rong (Jung) tribes.1Ac1 "Carrying the name of the tribe of Yandi the Fiery Lord."1Ac2 Beirong Pei Jung Northern Rong (Northern Jung) One of sub-group of the Rong (Jung) that roamed in the region of modern Hebei and Liaoning. Some sources indicate that they were the same group as the Shanrong.1Ad1 Shanrong Shan Jung Mountain Rong (Mountain Jung) A sub-group of the Roing (Jung) that roamed in the regions of modern Jilin (southern Manchuria), Hebei and Liaoning. Some sources indicate that they were the same group as the Beirong.1Ae1 Jiangrong Chiang Jung - One of two nomadic sub-groups (probably a tribe) that originally roamed in the Gansu (Kan-su) region but later moved to the east, into the land that is now modern Henan Province.1Af1 (Same as the Luhun Rong?) Luhun Rong Lu-hun Jung - One of two nomadic sub-groups (probably a tribe) that originally roamed in the Gansu (Kan-su) region but later moved to the east, into the land that is now modern Henan Province.1Ag1 (Same as the Jianrong?) Yangju Rong Yang-chu Jung - One of three nomadic sub-groups (probably a tribe) that originally roamed in the Henan (Hen-an) region and remained there during the Western Zhou (Chou) dynasty.1Ah1 Quangao Rong Ch'an-kao Jung - One of three nomadic sub-groups (probably a tribe) that originally roamed in the Henan (Hen-an) region and remained there during the Western Zhou (Chou) dynasty.1Ai1 Yiluo Rong Yi-luo Jung - One of three nomadic sub-groups (probably a tribe) that originally roamed in the Henan (He-nan) region and remained there during the Western Zhou (Chou) dynasty.1Aj1 Di Ti "Northern Barbarians" A general term for nomadic, tribal barbarians who roamed in what was, during their time, the northern frontier of China1B1, especially the northern frontier east of the Ordos region but west of Manchuria. Baidi Pai-Ti White Di (White Ti) A confederacy of three Di (Ti) tribes. They originally roamed the land of what is now Shaanxi (Shen-hsi) Province. Branches of them later migrated to what is now Hebei (He-pei) Province while the main body remained in Shaanxi.1Ba1 Xianyu (not to be confused with the Xianyun) Hsien-yü - One of three White Di (Baidi/Pai-ti) tribes that originally roamed the land of what is now Shaanxi Province in China. During the Springs and Autumns Period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty, they founded the state of Zongshan (Chung-shan) in what is now Shanxi (Shan-hsi) Province.1Baa1 "The Zhongshan (Chung-shan) state was founded by the Xianyu (Hsien Yu) tribe of Di nomadic nationality and annexed by the Marquis Wen of Wei state in 406 B.C. However, the state was restored in 378 B.C., with its capital moved to Lingshou (today's northeast Pingshan County, Hebei (Ho-pei)). In 323 B.C., the son of Duke Cheng of Zhongshan state claimed himself "King of Zhongshan", while in 314 B.C., the king dispatched an expedition against Yan and seized extensive land of the state, making Zhongshan a state of a thousand chariots among all vassal states. In 296 B.C., it was finally wiped out by Zhao."--History-Archaeology--"Site of the Zongshang State Capitol" Fei Fei - One of the three White Di (Ti) tribes that originally roamed the land of what is now Shaanxi Province in China.1Bab1 Gu Ku - One of the three White Di (Ti) tribes that originally roamed the land of what is now Shaanxi Province in China.1Bac1 Chidi Chi-ti Red Di (Red Ti) A group of five Di (Ti) tribes that originally roamed the land of what is now modern Shanxi (Shan-hsi) Province.1Bb1 Lu Lu - One of the five Chidi (Chi-ti) tribes that originally roamed the land of what is now modern Shanxi (Shan-hsi) Province.1Bba1 Liuxu Liu-hsü - One of the five Chidi (Chi-ti) tribes that originally roamed the land of what is now modern Shanxi (Shan-hsi) Province.1Bbb1 Duochen Tuo-chen - One of the five Chidi (Chi-ti) tribes that originally roamed the land of what is now modern Shanxi (Shan-hsi) Province.1Bbc1 Gaoluo Kao-luo - One of the five Chidi (Chi-ti) tribes that originally roamed the land of what is now modern Shanxi (Shan-hsi) Province.1Bbd1 Qiangjiu Chiang-chiu - One of the five Chidi (Chi-ti) tribes that originally roamed the land of what is now modern Shanxi (Shan-hsi) Province.1Bbe1 Sushen Su-shen - A group of people who inhabited land in Manchuria, specifically the land that now constitutes the modern provinces of Jilin (Ji-lin) and Heilongjiang (Hei-lung-chiang). Archaeological findings in those provinces indicate that they were from the Tungus branch of the Altaic peoples. They were the first people living in those provinces who were mentioned in Chinese records. 1Ca1 Yi Yi "Eastern Barbarians" Yi used alone in the context where it refers to a people meant, in the time of the Shan and Zhou dynasties, the non-Chinese tribal population settling in the region from the mouth of the Yellow River down to the mouth of the Yangtse River.1D1 The names Dongyi (Tung-yi)1D2 and Jiuyi (Chiu-yi)1D3 are generally equivalent to the name Yi alone in this context. Dongyi Tung-yi "Eastern Yi" Jiuyi Chiu-yi (?) "Southeastern Yi" Laiyi Lai-yi - One of the three most powerful of the Yi (Yi) tribes. The Laiyi dwelled in what is now the modern province of Shandong.1Da1 Huaiyi Huai-yi (?) - One of the three most powerful of the Yi (Yi) tribes. (The other is the Xuyi (Hsu-yi).) The Huaiyi (Huai-yi) tribe dwelled in the Huai River area of the modern province of Jiangsu (Chiang-su). (The modern city of Xuzhou is located in this area.)1Db1 Xuyi Hsu-yi - One of the three most powerful of the Yi (Yi) tribes. The Xuyi (Hs'u-i) tribe dwelled in the Xuzhou (Hsu-chou) area in the modern province of Shandong (Shan-tung).1Dc1 Pu Pu - A group of tribes that settled along the Yangtse River during the early years of the Western Zhou dynasty. During the period of the Western Zhou dynasty, they were located on the western frontier of the principality (later the state) of Chu. Then, after the beginning of the Eastern Zhou dynasty, they were defeated by King Xiongxuan of Chu (born as Fenmao, reigned 757-741 BCE). They then moved into the mountains further south.1E1 Man Man "Southern Barbarians" A general term for non-Chinese tribal people that inhabited the land of what is now the modern Yunan (Yu-nan) Province.1F1 Yue Yue "Southern Barbarians" A general term for non-Chinese tribal people who inhabited the lands of what is now Zhejiang (Che-chiang) Province, Jiangxi Province, and eastern Guandong Province. The Chinese did not consider them to be among the "Four Barbarians" (Rong (Jung)="Western Barbarians", Di (Ti)="Northrn Barbarians", Yi="Eastern Barbarians", Man="Southern Barbarians") They first appear in Chinese records in the ninth century. High mountains kept them mostly isolated from the Chinese people until the Springs and Autumns Period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty (770-475 BCE). Their aristocratic elite learned the written Chinese language and adopted Chinese political institutions and military technology. During the Period of the Warring States (475-221 BCE), two of their own states, Wu and Yue, participated in the conflict until their demise. By 90 BCE, the lands of the Yue had been annexed by the Chinese Empire of the Western Han dynasty (206 BCE-9 CE).1G1 Xianyun (not to be confused with the Xianyu) Hsien-yün - The Xianyun (Hsien-yün) were a group of aggressive, chariot-riding nomads that attacked the Zhou (Chou) dynasty during a short period from the late ninth century C.E. to the early eight century BCE.1H1 "Beginning in 823 BCE" is one estimate for the start of this period.1H2 Most of what is known about them from ancient writings is in the song "Liu yueh" in the Shi Jing (Shih Ching, Book of Songs or Classic of Poetry).1H3 The Shi Jing was originally compiled c.600 BCE.1H4 The particular song "Liu yu" ("Liu yüeh) is a song about a particular military campaign of the first Duke of Zhou against the Xianyun (Hsien-yün). Most modern scholars of ancient Chinese history dispute that the campaign took place during the reign of "the First Duke of Zhou", i.e. King Wu (reigned: 1046-1043 BCE), the first king of the Western Zhou dynasty. Instead, they believe the conflict occurred during the reign of King Xuan (Hsüan) (reigned 827-782 BCE). Geographical descriptions in the song place the greatest battle in the conflict very close to the center of the Zhou state, between the lower reaches of the Jing (Ching) and Luo (Lo) Rivers and the Wei River Valley.1H5 (This places the battleground north or northeast of the Zhou capitol, Hao.) After the last of their attacks, the Xianyun disappeared from history. Some modern scholars speculate that Mongolia was (or became) the homeland of the Xianyun1H6 and that they were the ancestors of the fierce Xiong-nu (Hsiung-nu)1H7 who first appear in Chinese history in the mid-third century BCE.   "Toward the end of the ninth century B.C. the Chou dynasty had to cope with the attacking Xian-yun (Hsien-yün) [not to be confused with the Xianyu (Hsien-yu) of the White Ti confederation]. Prusek (1971) tried to show that this attack aimed at the heart of the kingdom and was executed by mounted warriors. These events should be compared with the almost contemporary invasions of the Cimmerians and the Scythians in the Near East, with which Prusek suggested some kind of connection."     - Jettmar Karl, "Cultures and Ethnic Groups West of China in the Second and First Millennia B.C."
965 BCE	The Chinese defeated the barbarian Quanrong. King Mu of Zhou (Chou) (reigned 976-922 BCE)1 defeated the Quanrong (Ch'uän Jung) in the twelfth year of his reign.2
964 BCE	The Chinese attacked the Xurong One year after he defeated the Quanrong (Ch'än Jung), King Mu of Zhou (Chou) attacked the Western Jung (Hsi Jung) and the Xurong (Hsü Jung, the "Western" Ron). These aggresive actions were the opening of a phase of expansion for King Mu.1
879 BCE	The Rong of Taiyuan attacked the area of the Zhou capitol. In the seventh year of the King Yi of Zhou (reigned 885-878 BCE), The Rong (Jung) of Taiyuan (T'ai-yüan) attacked the area of Hao, the Zhou (Chu) capitol. The Zhou began to depend on other noble families to defend the realm.1
874 BCE	Kuo Kung attacked the Rong. In 874 BCE, a non-Zhou nobleman named Kuo Kung attacked the Rong (Jung) and captured one thousand horses. This was four years after the end of the reign of King Yi. It was during the reign of King Li of Zhou (reign:877-841 BCE), King Yi's successor.1
877-841 BCE	Deep invasions launched by the Western Rong. During the reign of King Li (Liwang) of Zhou (reigned 857/53-842/28), the Zhou dynasty weakened further and the Western Rong (Western Jung) made deep invasions into the Zhou realm.1
841 BCE	Reign of King Li of Zhou ended. The reign of King Li was ended in 841 BCE by a rebellion of several feudal lords.1
827-782 BCE	The Jing, Luo, and Wei Rivers Click on image to enlarge it. The reign of King Xuan (Hsüan) and the Invasion of the Xianyun During the reign of King Xuan of Zhou (reigned 827-782 BCE) a highly aggressive nomadic people known as the Xianyun (Hsien-yün) made deep incursions into his realm before they disappeared from history. The greatest battle in the conflict between the Chinese and the Xianyun (Hsien-yün) took place between the lower reaches of the Jing and Luo Rivers and the Wei River Valley. See under "Xianyun" in Table 1. Non-Chinese Tribal People During the Zhou Dynasty above for details.
c.792 (?)-c.782 BCE	King Xuan fought back against the Rong. Towards the end of the reign of King Xuan (Hsüan) of Zhou (Chou) (reigned 827-782 BCE) fought back against the Rong. There were repeated military engagements. In one campaign, King Xuan reached Taijuan, in the Ningxia (Ning-hsia) area, immediately south-southwest of the Ordos dessert, containing the source of the Jing-shui River.1
790 BCE	The principality of Chin attacked the Northern Jung. The Chin nobility conducted a military expedition against the Northern Jung.1
771 BCE	The Zhou capitol is sacked by the Quanrong--The End of the Western Zhou Dynasty In 771 BCE, King You (beginning of reign: 781 BCE) of the Western Zhou Dynasty was killed by Quanrong (Ch'uän Jung). According to some sources, he was killed at the foothill of Lishang Mountain.1 But according to some other sources, he was killed in the city of Hao, the capitol city of the Western Zhou dynasty, when it was sacked by the Quanrong.2 (Perhaps this contradiction reflects the existence of conflicting accounts in the various ancient Chinese chronicles?) King You had been married first to the Queen Shen, the daughter of the Marquis of Shen. She was the mother of Yijiu, the first-born son of King You. Some time after Yijiu was born, King You had taken up with a concubine, Baosi, and had a son, Bofu, by her. He had come to favor Baosi over Queen Shen. Accordingly, he had deposed Queen Shen and made Baosi the new queen. He had also deposed Yijiu as crown prince and gave this title and its privileges to Bofu after Bofu was born. This of course infuriated Queen Shen's father, the Marquis of Shen. Subsequently, the Marquis had allied himself with the Quanrong and had invited them to make attacks against King You. The Quanrong killed the king and sacked the Zhou capitol city of Hao.3 The Quanrong and finally left the capitol after taking a bribe from the Zhou.4 According to some sources, some Xirong were with the Quanrong in these events; after the Quanrong left Hao, some of them went back to the vicinity of Mount Lishang and became known as the Li-rong; the other Quanrong went to live between the Jing and Wei Rivers.5 The city of Hao was left in ruins. This marked the end of the period called the Western Zhou Dynasty. It is followed by the Eastern Zhou dynasty.6 The kings of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty all descend directly from King You. The first king of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty was the first-born son of King You and the queen he had jilted.
770-475 BCE	Location of Luoyang within modern day China. Spring and Autumn Period: First Phase of the Eastern Chou Dynasty Following the killing of the Zhou Emperor-King You (Yu) and the sacking of the original Zhou Dynasty capitol city of Hou by the nomadic Chuan-rung (Quanrong), the emperor-king's son Ji Yijiu was proclaimed the new emperor-king by nobles from the states of Zheng (Cheng), Lu, Qin (Ch'in), Xu (Ch'u) and Shen, a new capitol was established farther eastward, at the city of Luoyang (Lo-yang) in present-day Henan Province. After Ji Yi Yijiu was coronated, he was formally known as King Ping of Zhou. The eastward move was for the sake of protection from the nomadic barbarians to the north and west. This was the beginning of what is called the Eastern Han dynasty. It was also the beginning of the "Spring and Autumn Period"of the Eastern Han dynasty. Effectively, King Ping of Zhou and the later Zhou emperor-kings of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty were figureheads. The real power layed in the hands of powerful Zhou nobles nominally below the emperor-king in rank.1 During the Spring and Autumn Period, the Zhou aristocracy continually lost power over the empire and became increasingly irrelevant as fiefs transformed into rival states.2 The Springs and Autumns Period ended in 475 BCE, at the beginning of the reign of King Yuan of Zhou. The Zhou Empire completely broke up at this time into many rival states. The Zhou aristocracy was left with real control over only over a small county containing the capitol city, Luoyang (Lo-yang). The emperor-king continued to be a mere figure head even in this county.3 The name "Springs and Autumns" for the period is derived from the collective title of the annals of Lu state written during the period.4
765 BCE<year<716 BCE	Qin Lord Wengong defeated the Xi Rong "King Bo" Qin (Ch'in) Lord Wengong (Wen-kung) (reigned 765-716 BCE) defeated King Bo's Rong (Jung) and gave the land east of Qishan (Ch'i Shan) Mountain back to the court of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty. This would be a Xirong (Hsi Jung) lord by the title of 'Bo' in a place called 'Dang She' ('Tang Shi') where the character 'dang' was said to be a mutation of the Shang Dynasty founder, 'Shang-Tang'. Ancient classics said that this group of people claimed heritage from Shang-Tang and used the ancient Shang capital name 'Bo' for the title of their king.1
713 BCE	Qin Lord Ninggong defeated the Xi Rong "King Bo". In the third year of his reign, Qin Lord Ninggong (Ning-Kung) (reigned 715-704 BCE) defeated King Bo and drove him and his Dan Shi (Tan Shi) clan towards the home territory of the Xi Rong (Hsi Jung) people.1
704 BCE	Qin Lord Ninggong totally defeated King Bo In the twelfth year of his reign, Qin Lord Ninggong completely defeated King Bo and subjugated his Dan Shi clan.1
c.550?-c.450? BCE	A nomadic culture existed in the Ordos region. An early fully developed nomadic existed in the Ordos region between the sixth and fifth centuries BCE. The archaeological evidence for this conclusion is found at the ancient cemetery site excavated at Taohongbala (T'ao-hung-pa-la) in the southwestern area of the Ordos region. This culture may have been one of the progenitors of the later Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu) culture. Carbon-14 dating places the time of the burials between the sixth and fifth centuries.1
?-525 BCE-?	A nomadic culture existed in Inner Mongolia northwest of the Ordos region. During the late sixth century, a fully formed early nomadic culture existed in a region almost directly across the Yellow River from the northwest corner of the Ordos region. This is a conclusion based on archaeological evidence found at the Maoqinggou (Mao-ch'ing-kou) cemetary site about 50 miles northwest corner of the great bend of the Yellow River, in modern Liangcheng County, Inner Mongolia where seventy-nine late sixth century tombs were excavated by archaeologists in 1979.1
475-221 BCE	China in 240 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. The Warring States Period.1 The Warring States Period includes the last period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, which ended in 256 BCE. During most of this time, there were seven Chinese states that independently had real military power: Chu, Qin (Ch'in), Han, Wei, Qi (Ch'i), Zhao (Chao), and Yan.2 There was constant warfare during this period. The struggle was not just over territorial disputes or to resolve other disputes when diplomacy failed. Each one of the seven states fought to conquer the other six.3 In 256 BCE, King Nan of Zhou died and the the Zhou capitol, Luoyang (Lo-Yang), fell to Qin forces. King Nan's son Ji Jie was made King Hui of Zhou by the surviving Zhou aristocracy. But Zhou resistance to the Qin forces did not last long. King Hui's nominal reign ended in 249 BCE.4 The Eastern Zhou Dynasty is widely considered to have ended with the death of King Nan of Zhou in 256 BCE. By the end of 222 BCE, Qin had conquered all of the other six warring states except for Qi. Qin conquered Qi in 221 BCE and brought unity back to China.
c.450-c.330 BCE	"Compared to the Ti and Jung of the seventh and sixth centuries B.C., the northern nomads from about 450 to 330 B.C. were a tame neighbor [of the Chinese], far from the dangerous lot they would become."     - Nicolo Di Cosmo, Ancient China and Its Enemies (2002), p. 131.
c.307 BCE	Cavalry replaced War Chariots in China. The state of Zhao (Chao) replaced its war chariots with cavalry. The other Chinese states soon followed.1
By 300 BCE	Barbarians near northern China, c. 240 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. Recognition of the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu). By the third century BCE, Chinese officials knew of three powerful groups of mounted, nomadic pastoral people north of China.1 (See map at right.) One of these groups, the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu), was in the Ordos region2and most of Mongolia (including Inner Mongolia).3 To the east of the Xiongnu, in eastern Mongolia and the plains of Manchuria, there was the second group, the Donghu (Tung-hu).4 The third group, the Yuezhi (Yueh-chi), were west of the Ordos region, in the region of Gansu (Kansu).5 A fourth mounted, nomadic people was the Wusun (Wu-Sun). They were weaker than the Xiongnu, the Tonghu, and the Yuezhi. They were located east of the Yuezhi.6 The ethnicity of the Xiongnu is unknown. It has been speculated that they were either Turkic, Mongolic, or related to some Siberian people such as the Yenisei7 or the Tunga.8 There is nearly a general consensus among scholars that both the Yuezhi and the Wusun were originally Indo-European.9 During the Period of the Warring States (475-220 BCE), some of the Quanrong (Chuan-rung) became absorbed into the Xiongnu but the main body of the Quanrong later posed a significant problem for the Western Han Dynasty (206 BCE-9 CE) and the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 CE-250 CE).10 Also, by the end of the fourth century BCE, the Chinese term Hu refers to non-Chinese people of the north in general, while Yueh refers to non-Chinese people of the south in general. 11

FOOTNOTES TO MAIN TEXT

1046-770 BCE: Western Chou (Zhou) Dynasty.

¹Chinavoc.com--History--"Zhou Dynasty"

²Ancient China--"The Chou"

³Blunden & Elvin, Cultural Atlas of China, Revised Edition (Abingdon, Oxfordshire, England: Andromeda Oxford Ltd., 1998), p. 59.

⁴Wikipedia--"Zhou Dynasty".

965 BCE: The Chinese defeat the barbarian Ch'uän Jung

¹Di Cosmo, Nicola Ancient China and Its Enemies (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 108--Di Cosmo gives the time period of King Mu of Zhou's reign as 956-918 BCE. But I am not using this here. I am using what is given in the table in Wikipedia--"Zhou Dynasty", which is 976-922 BCE. 965 BCE is then the 12th year of Mu's reign.

² Ibid., p. 108.

964 BCE: The Chinese attack the Western Rong (Western Jung) and the Xurong (Hsü Jung).

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 108.

879 BCE: The Rong of Taiyuan attacked the area of the Zhou capitol.

¹Ibid., p. 108. I do not use here the time period for King Yi of Zhou (865-858 BCE) given by Di Cosmo. In the table of Zhou kings in Wikipedia--"Zhou Dynasty", the period of King Yi of Zhou's reign is given as 885-878 BCE. I use that.

874 BCE: Kuo Kung attacked the Rong.

¹Ibid., p. 108. Di Cosmo gives the year of the event as 854 BCE--4 years after his year for the end of Yi's. 874 BCE is 4 years after the Wikipedia year for the end of Yi's reign.

877-841 BCE: Deep invasions launched by the Western Rong.

¹Ibid., p. 108.

Reign of King Li of Zhou Ended

¹Chinese History - Zhou Dynasty (11th. cent.-221 BC) event historywww.ChinaKnowledge.org-- "Chinese History - Zhou Dynasty ? (11th. cent.-221 BC) event history".

792-782 BCE: Repeated military engagements between the Chinese and the Rong (Jung).

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 109; www.ImperialChina.org -- "The Huns Part I" by Ah Xiang (See in the third paragraph under 'Zhou/Qin People's Zigzags with Rong & Di.')

790 BCE: Chin attacked the Northern Jung.

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 109.

771 BCE: The Zhou capitol is sacked by the Quanrong--The End of the Western Zhou Dynasty

¹ImperialChina.Com--"The Huns - Part I" by Ah Xiang. This source gives the location (foothill of Lishang Mountain) where King You was killed. (See in the third paragraph under 'Zhou/Qin People's Zigzags with Rong and Di.')

²Wikipedia--"King You of Zhou"; Wikipedia--"Quanrong".

³Wikipedia--"King You of Zhou" This is the most detailed of my sources. It gives the names of the concubine and the two sons.

⁴Wikipedia--"Quanrong".

⁵ImperialChina.Com--"The Huns - Part I" by Ah Xiang. See in the third paragraph under 'Zhou/Qin People's Zigzags with Rong and Di.'

⁶ See also: Sima, Nienhauser, & Cheng, (translators), The Grand Scribe's Records, Volume 5, Part 1 (Indiana University Press,1994), p. 90; Blunden & Elvin, op. cit., p. 61.

770-475 BCE: The Springs and Autumns Period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty

¹Wikipedia--"Quanrong"

²Blunden & Elvin, op. cit., p. 61.

³University of Montreal--"An Overview of Chinese History".

⁴HistoryToday.com--"Springs and Autumns Period".

765 BCE<year<716 BCE: Qin Lord defeats the Xi Rong of "King Bo"

¹www.ImperialChina.org -- "The Huns Part I" by Ah Xiang

713 BCE: Qin Lord Ninggong defeated the Xi Rong "King Bo".

¹Ibid.

Qin Lord Ninggong totally defeated King Bo

¹Ibid.

A nomadic culture existed in the Ordos region.

¹Di Cosmo, Nicola, op. cit., pp. 76-77; Jettmar Karl, "Cultures and Ethnic Groups West of China in the Second and First Millennia B.C."

?-525 BCE-?: A nomadic culture existed in Inner Mongolia northwest of the Ordos region.

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 78; Wu, Xiaolong, "Female and Male Status Displayed at the Maoquinggou Cemetary" in Linduff, Katheryn M. & Sun, Yan (ed.), Gender and Chinese Archaeology (Walnut Creek, California: AltiMira Press, 2004), p. 203; "The Northern Frontier in Pre-Imperial China" (a review by Michael McKenney of Nicola Di Cosmo's treatment of this theme in the 13th chapter of the Cambridge History of Ancient China).

475-221 BCE: The Warring States Period.

¹ Often the "Period of the Warring States" is given as being from 403 to 221 BCE, or some time period very close to that. That is to reflect the the ancient Chinese annals titled The Warring States Period by its ancient author and which covers the time period from about 403 to 221 BCE. We resort to an alternate convention here (475 to 221 BCE) to have continuity from the conventioanal end of the Springs and Autumns Period and because that is Di Cosmo's choice in his works, including his Ancient China and Its Enemies.

²Wikipedia--"Warring States Period".

³San Jose State University/Prof. Thayer Watkins--"The Warring States of Ancient China"

³Wikipedia--"Warring States Period". See the list of East Zhou Dynasty kings with years of theirs reigns near the bottom of this Wikipedia webpage.

307 BCE: Cavalry replaced War Chariots in China

¹Wikipedia--"Qin Dynasty". Wikipedia cites for this Morton, W. Scott, China: Its History and Culture (3rd ed. ed.), McGraw-Hill (1995), p. 27.

c. 300 BCE: Recognition of Xiongnu

¹Christian, D. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Vol. I (Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1998), pp. 128, 184; Legg, S., The Barbarians of Asia (New York: Dorset Press, 1970.), pp. 75-76.

²Christian, op. cit., pp. 128, 184; ElanguageSchool.net--Xiongnu. According to both of these sources, the Ordu region was the original base of the Xiongnu.

³Legg, op. cit., p. 75. Legg considers Mongolia to have been the prime domain of the Xiongnu.

⁴Christian, op. cit., pp. 128, 184; Wikipedia--"Donghue people"; Wikipedia--"Xiongnu".

⁵Christian, op. cit., pp. 128, 184; Grousset, op. cit., pp. 27-28; Mongolia: A Country Study--"Xiongnu and Yuehzhi"; "The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia" by Craig Benjamin; EconomicExpert.com--"Yuezhi".

⁶Christian, op. cit., pp. 128, 184; Grousset, op. cit., p. 29; Wikipedia--"Wusun"; EconomicExpert.Com--"Wusun"; All Experts-Encyclopedia--"Wusun"; MapsOf.net--"Migration route of Wusun in Western Han Dynasty".

⁷Wikipedia--"Xiongnu".

⁸Legg, op. cit., p. 77.

⁹Christian, op. cit., p. 184; Legg, op. cit., p.76; Grousset, op. cit., p. 28 (in regard to the Yuezhi only--on p. 29, Grousset considers it plausible that the Wusun originally spoke an Indo-European language, but does not endorse the notion as firm fact.); EconomicExpert.com--"Yuezhi";Wikipedia--"Yuezhi". (In Wikipedia--"Wusun" there are some reservations given about accepting the notion that the Wusun were originally Indo-European.)

¹⁰Wikipedia--"Quanrong".

¹¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 130.

256 BCE: End of the Zhou Dynasty

¹Wikipedia--"Zhou Dynasty"

221 BCE: Beginning of the Imperial Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty

¹The Anchor Atlas of World History, Volume 1: From the Stone Age to the Eve of the French Revolution, (New York: Anchor Books/Doubleday, 1974), p. 41; Wikipedia--"Qin Dynasty"; Wikipedia--"Qin Shi Huang".

   

FOOTNOTES TO TABLE 1.

^1A1www.ChinaKnowledge.Org --"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Rong ".

^1Aa1White, D.G., Myths of the Dog-Man(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991), p. 143.

^1Aa2Wikipedia--"Quanrong".

^1Aa3www.ChinaKnowledge.Org --"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Rong".

^1Aa4Eberhard, Wolfram, The Local Cultures of South and East China (Brill Archive, 1969), p. 44.

^1Aa5White, D.G., op. cit., p. 143.

^1Aa6Wikipedia--"Quanrong".

^1Ab1www.ChinaKnowledge.Org --"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Rong ".

^1Ac1Ibid..

^1Ac2www.ImperialChina.org -- "Huns, Part I" by Ah Xiang. (In third paragraph there under 'Rong's Possible Link to Qiangic People.')

^1Ad1www.ChinaKnowledge.Org --"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Rong" gives the modern provinces of Hebei and Liaoning (the most northeastern of modern provinces of People's Republic of China, excluding those within Inner Mongolia and Manchuria) as the locations of the Beirong (Northern Rong)-as well as that of the Shanrong (Mountain Rong); www.ImperialChina.org -- "The Huns, Part I" by Ah Xiang has "...the 'Shanrong' (Mountain Rong) or 'Beirong' (Northern Rong), who were likely the ancestors of ancient Koreans who lost large patches of land to the allied forces of Yan and Qi principalities of Zhou dynasty." (See the second paragraph there under 'Origins of the Huns - Rong & Di.').

^1Ae1www.ChinaKnowledge.Org --"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Rong" gives the modern provinces of Hebei and Liaoning (the most northeastern of modern provinces of People's Republic of China, excluding those within Inner Mongolia and Manchuria) as the locations of the Shanrong (Mountain Rong)-as well as that of the Beirong (Northern Rong); www.ImperialChina.org -- "The Huns, Part I" by Ah Xiang states that the Shanrong or Mountain Rong "belonged to southern Manchuria." and "...the 'Shanrong' (Mountain Rong) or 'Beirong' (Northern Rong), who were likely the ancestors of ancient Koreans who lost large patches of land to the allied forces of Yan and Qi principalities of Zhou dynasty." (See the second paragraph there under 'Origins of the Huns - Rong & Di.')

^1Af1www.ChinaKnowledge.Org --"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Rong".

^1Ag1Ibid..

^1Ah1Ibid..

^1Ai1Ibid..

^1Aj1Ibid..

^1B1www.ChinaKnowledge.org - History--"Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Di"; Ebrey, Patricia Buckley, The Oxford Illustrated History of China (Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 57.

^1Ba1Ibid.; ; Di Cosmo, Nicolo, Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History (Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 100.

^1Baa1www.ChinaKnowledge.org - History--"Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Di"; Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 100.

^1Bab1www.ChinaKnowledge.org - History--"Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Di".

^1Bac1Ibid.

^1Bb1Ibid.

^1Bba1Ibid.

^1Bbb1Ibid.

^1Bbc1Ibid.

^1Bbd1Ibid.

^1Bbe1Ibid.

^1Ca1Wikipedia--"Sushen".

^1D1ChinaKnowledge.org--"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Yi"; ChinaKnowledge.org--"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Yi".

^1D2ChinaKnowledge.org--"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Yi"; Wikipedia--"Dongyi"

^1D3www.ChinaKnowledge.org--"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Yi"; www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Myth/shang-event.html --"Chinese History - Shang Dynasty ? (17th to 11th cent. BC) event history" See under "Traditional Accounts": "Yi She was also the first to initiate relationships with the western nomad tribes (Xirong) and the southeastern barbarians (Jiuyi)." (Copied 04/29/2010.)

^1Da1www.ChinaKnowledge.org--"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Yi"; Wikipedia--"Shandong".

^1Db1www.ChinaKnowledge.org--"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Yi"; Wikipedia--"Jiangsu".

www.ChinaKnowledge.org--"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Yi"^1Dc1.

^1E1www.ChinaKnowledge.org --Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Pu ; www.ChinaKnowledge.org --Western Zhou Dynasty: Ruler of Chu.

^1F1www.ChinaKnowledge.org --"Nanzhao".

^1G1Wikipedia--"Yue Peoples"; Wikipedia--"Yue (state)"; Wikipedia--"Wu (state)"; Wikipedia--"Han Dynasty" (See there the map showing the realm of the Han Dynasty, 87 BCE.)

^1H1Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 108; Grousset, René, Empire of the Steppes (Rutgers University Press, 1970), p. 19.

^1H2Prusek, Janislov, Chinese Statelets and the Northern Barbarians in the Period 1400-300 B.C., (W. Reidel Publishing, 1973), p. 119; Chase-Dunn, Christopher & Anderson, Eugene Newton, The historical evolution of world-systems (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2005), p. 35; Jettmar Karl, "Cultures and Ethnic Groups West of China in the Second and First Millennia B.C." (Chase-Dunn & Anderson and Jettmar cite Prusek here.)

^1H3Di Cosmo, op. cit., pp. 108-09.

^1H4"Book of Songs" by Dr. Robert Churchill, Creighton University.

^1H5Di Cosmo, op. cit., pp. 108-09.

^1H6Jettmar Karl, "Cultures and Ethnic Groups West of China in the Second and First Millennia B.C."

^1H7Grousset, op. cit., p. 19. (Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 107, counts the Hsien-yun, the Jung (Rong), and others among "a host of northern peoples" as "progenitors of the Hsiung-nu.")

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

• Blunden, Caroline & Elvin, Mark. Cultural Atlas of China, Revised Edition. Abingdon, Oxfordshire, England: Andromeda Oxford Ltd., 1998. 240 pages. Hardback, ISBN-10: 0-8160-3814-7.

• Christian, David. A History of Russia, Central Asia, and Mongolia, Vol. I: Inner Eurasia from Prehistory to the Mongol Empire. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1998. 495 pages. Paperback, ISBN-10: 0-631-208143.

• Di Cosmo, Nicola. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 369 pages. Paperback, ISBN-13: 978-0-54382-8; Hardback, ISBN-13: 978-0521-77064-4.

• Legg, Stuart. The Barbarians of Asia: The Peoples of the Steppes from 1600 B.C.. New York: Dorset Press, 1970. 350 pages. Hardback, ISBN-10: 0-88029-534.

• Grousset, Rene. The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. New Bruswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1970. Hardback, SBN: 8135-0627-1.

• Sima, Q., Nienhauser, W.H., and Cheng, T.F. (translators). The Grand Scribe's Records, Volume 5, Part 1. Indiana University Press (1994). 396 pages. Hardback, ISBN-10 0-253-34021-7.

On the Web

• ImperialChina.Com--"The Huns - Part I"

• ImperialChina.Com--"The Huns - Part II"

• AllEmpires.com--"The Xiongnu Empire" by Ishan

• Chinaknowledge.org Home Page

• ChinaKnowlege.org/"History--Foreign peoples in and around China" --a table of historical barbarian peoples/tribes with links to specific pages about each, respectively!

• ChinaKnowlege.de--"Chinese History - The Xiongnu"

• "The Sixteen Kingdoms of the Five Barbarian Peoples"

• ChinaKnowledge.org--"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Yi"

• ChinaKnowledge.org/History--"Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Rong"

• ChinaKnowledge.org--History--"Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Di"

• www.ChinaKnowledge.org --Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Pu

• ChinaKnowledge.org--"Nanzhao" (About the Man tribes, but mostly beginning with 6th Century CE.)

• Chinaknowledge.org--"Chinese History - Shang Dynasty (17th to 11th cent. BC) event history"

• CountryStudies.com--"Xiongnu and Yuezhi"

• "The Division and Destruction of the Xiongnu Confederacy" by Rafe de Crespigny"

• "Cultures and Ethnic Groups West of China in the Second and First Millennia B.C." by Jettmar Karl

• Silk-Road.com--"The Xiongnu Culture--Third Century BCE"

• Elanguages.net--"Xiongnu"

• Virtual Art Exhibit--"The Xiongnu"

• TheJadeRoad.com--"Mao Dun Treasures"

• New World Encyclopedia--"Xiongnu"

• EconomicExpert.com--"Yuezhi"

• ChinaKnowledge.de--Chinese History--"Yuezhi"

• EconomicExpert.Com--"Wusun"

• All Experts-Encyclopedia--"Wusun"

• MapsOf.net--"Migration route of Wusun in Western Han Dynasty"

• HistoryOfChina.com--"Zhou Dynasty"

• HistoryOfChina.com--"Qin Dynasty"

• History of China--"Meng Tian-First General of Chin"

• Yutopian.com/history--"Xi Zhou Dynasty" (Western Zhou Dynasty)

• Yutopian.com/history--"Dong Zhou Dynasty" (Eastern Zhou Dynasty)

• Wikipedia--"Donghue People"

• Wikipedia--"Dongyi"

• Wikipedia--"Sushen"

• Wikipedia--"Ordos (culture)"

• Wikipedia--"Quanrong"

• Wikipedia--"Qin Dynasty"

• Wikipedia--"Wusun"

• Wikipedia--"Xiongnu"

• Wikipedia--"Yuezhi"

• Wikipedia--"Zhou Dynasty"

• Chinavoc.com--History--"Zhou Dynasty"

• Washington State University--Ancient China--"The Chou"

• Friesian.com--"States of the Eastern Chou, 721-256"

• Megaloceros.com--Chinese History--Warring States Period

• San Jose State University/Prof. Thayer Watkins--"The Warring States of Ancient China"

• Wikipedia--"Warring States Period"

• PaulNoll.com--Chinese Dynasty Maps

• "Homepage: A Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization" by Patricia Buckley Ebrey

• A Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization--"Timeline and Maps"

• University of Montreal--"An Overview of Chinese History"

• ChinaHighlights.com--"Great Wall History Maps"