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The Xiongnu 350 B.C.E.-460 C.E.

Time	Events
By 350 BCE	Barbarians near northern China, c. 240 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. Recognition of the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu). By 350 BCE, Chinese officials knew of three powerful groups of mounted, nomadic pastoral people north of China.1 (See map at right.) One of these groups, the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu), was in the Ordos region2and most of Mongolia (including Inner Mongolia).3 To the east of the Xiongnu, in eastern Mongolia and the plains of Manchuria, there was the second group, the Donghu (Tung-hu).4 The third group, the Yuezhi (Yueh-chi), were west of the Ordos region, in the region of Gansu (Kansu).5 A fourth mounted, nomadic people was the Wusun (Wu-Sun). They were located east of the Yuezhi.6 Much of what was first recorded for history concerning the Xiongnu is contained in the Shi Ji (Shih Chi) written by Sima Qian (Ssu-ma Ch'ien) (c.145-c.90 BCE) who was the Grand Historian (Taishi) of the Chinese imperial court from 110 BCE to 90 BCE, during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han dynasty. (Sima Qian inherited his position from his father, Sima Tan, and the Shi Chi was either begun by Sima Tan or was at least a continuation of his work.) In his Shi ji 5: Basic Annals of Qin, in an entry that is essentially for the year 318 BCE, the Grand Historian Sima Quien (Ssu-ma Ch'ien) (c.145-c.90 BCE) makes his first non-legendary mention of the Xiongnu:7 "Fourteenth year [of the reign of King Huiwen of Qin; i.e., 324 BCE]: the Qin ruler [King Huiwen] began numbering the years of his rule again and this became the first year of the new numbering. Second Year [323 BCE]: Zhang Yi met with the chief officials of Qi and Chu at Neisang...Fifth year [320 BCE]: the King of Qin journeyed to the north bend of the Yellow River [in or near the Ordos region]. Seventh year [318 BCE]: Yue Chi became the prime minister of Qin. [The states of] Hann, Zhao, Wei, Yan, and Qi, leading a force of Xiongnu, joined in attacking Qin. Qin dispatched the militia leader Shuli Ji to do battle with them at Xiuyu. He captured their general Huan, and cut off the heads of 82,000 of the enemy." Like the Mongols of the thirteenth century C.E., the Xiongnu were skilled at fighting with sword and bow while mounted on horses. Their tactics too were much the same as the Mongols. In his Shi Ji 110: The Account of the Xiongnu, Sima Qian writes:8 "It is their custom to herd their flocks in times of peace and make their living by hunting, but in periods of crisis they take up arms and go off on plundering and marauding expeditions. This seems to be their in-born nature. For long-range weapons they use bows and arrows, and swords and spears at close range. If the battle is going well for them they will advance, but if not, they will retreat, for they do not consider it a disgrace to run away. Their only concern is self-advantage, and they know nothing about propriety or righteousness." Like the Mongols, one special tactic of the Xiongnu was to have a weaker force of their own cavalry retreat from an advancing enemy army and so lead that army into ambush by a stronger, hidden force of their own. For an example of this, see the entry below for the year 200 BCE. In Shi Ji 110: The Account of the Xiongnu, Sima Qian writes:9 "They are very skillful at using decoy troops to lure their opponents to destruction. When they catch sight of an enemy, they swoop down like a flock of birds, eager for booty, but when they find themselves hard pressed and beaten, they scatter and vanish like the mist." It may be fair to say that the Xiongnu's traditional ways of fighting were passed down through Mongolian history to the Mongols. But they were already shared at the time of the Xiongnu with the Yuezhi (Yueh-chih) and Wusun (Wu-sun). The ethnicity of the Xiongnu is unknown. It has been speculated that they were either Turkic, Mongolic, or related to some Siberian people such as the Yenisei10 or the Tunga.11 There is nearly a general consensus among scholars that both the Yuezhi and the Wusun were originally Indo-European.12 During the Period of the Warring States (475-220 BCE), some of the Quanrong (Chuan-rung) became absorbed into the Xiongnu but the main body of the Quanrong later posed a significant problem for the Western Han Dynasty (206 BCE-9 CE) and the Eastern Han Dynasty (25 CE-250 CE).13
256 BCE	End of the Zhou Dynasty. The Zhou dynasty ended in 256 BCE when King Nan, the last effective king of Zhou, died and his sons did not proclaim the nominal titles of King of China. (Nobles of the Ji family proclaimed King Hui as King Nan's successor after their capital, Luoyang, fell to Qin forces in 256 BC. However Zhou resistance did not last long in the face of the Qin advance and so King Nan is widely considered to have been the last king of the Zhou dynasty.)1
221 BCE	Beginning of the Imperial Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty. After the king of Qin by the personal name of Ying Zheng (Ying Chen) conquered all of the other Chinese states, he formally made himself the Emperor of China. He was given the formal name Qin Shi Huangdi ("First Most Sublime Ruler of the Qin")1
220-209 BCE	The Reign of the Xiongnu Shanyü Touman. Touman, the earliest known Shonyü (supreme chieftain) of a Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu) confederacy, reigned from 220-209 BCE.1 He conducted raids into the Qin Empire from the Ordos region (the territory within the "Big Bend" of the Yellow River) until some time in 214-215 BCE when the Chinese general Meng Tian attacked and drove the barbarians out of the Ordos region.
215-214 BCE	General Meng Tian of the Qin drove barbarian tribes out from the Ordos and he began construction of a "Great Wall." The Grand Historian Sima Qian (Ssu-ma Ch'ien) (c.145-c.90 BCE) writes in Shi Ji 110: The Account of the Xiongnu:1 "Finally Qin overthrew the other six states, and the First Emperor of the Qin dispatched Meng Tian [Meng T'ien] to lead a force of 100,000 men north to attack the barbarians [Hu]. He seized control of all the lands south of the Yellow River and established border defences along the river, constructing forty-four walled district cities overlooking the river and manning them with convict labourers transported to the border for garrison duty. He also built the Direct Road from Jiuyuan [Chiu-yüan] to Yünyang . Thus he utilized the natural mountain barriers to establish the border defences, scooping out the valleys and constructing ramparts and building installations at other points where they were needed. The whole line stretched over 10,000 li from Lintao [Lin-t'ao] to Liaodong [Liao-tung] and even extended across the Yellow River and through Yangshan [Yang Mountains] and Beijia [Pei-chia].   "At this time the Eastern Barbarians were very powerful and the Yuezhi were likewise flourishing. The Shanyu or chieftain of the Xiongnu was named Touman. Touman, unable to hold out against the Qin forces, had withdrawn to the far north, where he lived with his subjects for over ten years." In Shi ji 6: The Basic Annals of the First Emperor of Qin, Sima Qian writes:2   "Thirty-second year [of the reign of Qin Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of the Qin; i.e., 215 BCE]:... [skipping over one paragraph here in which is transcribed a inscription carved in that year on a certain gate; the inscription praises the emperor for his glorious accomplishments]... At this time the emperor dispatched Han Zhong, Lord Hou, and Master Shi to search for the immortals and their herbs of everlasting life. The First Emperor, having toured the northern border region, returned to the capital by way of Shang Province. Master Lu, a native of Yan, who had been sent out to sea, returned and, claiming that it had come to him from the gods and spirits, submitted a document that said 'Qin will be destroyed by Hu.' The First Emperor thereupon ordered General Meng Tian to call out 300,000 troops and lead them north to strike at the Hu barbarians. The general invaded and seized the area south of the bend of the Yellow River. Thirty-third year [214 BCE]:...In the northwest the Xiongnu were driven back and the region from Yuzhong [in today's Gansu Province, not far west of the bend of the Yellow River] east along the Yellow River was joined with Mt. Yin, being divided up into thirty-four districts. Fortifications were built along the river to protect the border."     The term Hu in the passage above from the Shi ji does not refer to a specific tribe or group of tribes. By the end of the fourth century BCE, Hu referred to non-Chinese people of the north in general, while Yueh referred to non-Chinese people of the south in general.3 Further on in Shi Ji 6, Sima Qian comes back to General Meng Tian's aggression against barbarians:4 Long walls in China 216 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. "Then followed kings Xiaowen and Zhuangxiang, whose reigns were short and unevenful. After this came the First Emperor who...swallowed up the eastern and western Zhou, and overthrew the feudal lords [i.e., he eliminated the last remnants of the eastern and western Zhou (Ch'ou) dynasties]. He ascended the throne of honor and ruled the six directions...In the south he seized the land of the hundred tribes of Yue and made of it Guilin and Xiang provinces, and the hundred Yue bowed their heads...and pleaded for their lives with the lowest official of Qin [Ch'in]. Then he sent Meng Tian north to build the Great Wall and defend the borders, driving back the Xiongnu over 700 li, so that the barbarians no longer ventured to come south to pasture their horses and their men dared not take up their bows to vent their hatred." There is yet a fourth passage by Sima Qian to consider. In Shi ji 88, Sima Qian writes:5 "Qin, having completed its unification of the empire, dispatched Meng Tian to lead a force of 300,000 men and advance north, expelling the Rong and Di barbarians and taking control of the region south of the bend of the Yellow River. He set about constructing the Great Wall, following the contours of the land and utilizing the narrow defiles to set up frontier posts. The wall began at Lintao [in modern Gansu Province south of the present day city of Lanzhou] and ran east to Liaodong [on the Gulf of Bohai], extending for a distance of over 10,000 li. Crossing the Yellow River, it followed the Yang Mountains [Note: the Yang Mountains are north of the Yellow River and run parallel to that river where it forms the northern segment of its "bend"], twisting and turning as it proceeded north. Meng Tian remained in the field for over ten years, residing in Shang Province. At this time Meng Tian's might had struck terror into the Xiongnu people." This fourth passage seems to be speaking of three tribal groups: the Rong (Jung), the Di (Ti), and the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu). But the terms "Rong" and "Di" are both broad in meaning. The lands within the the "bend" of the Yellow River is inclusive of the modern provinces of Shaanxi and Ningxia as well as part of Gansu and part of Inner Mongolia. At least during the Zhou Dynasty, the lands in which the Rong roamed in were mainly what is now Shaanxi, Gansu, and Ningxia.6 The "White Di" (Baidi) roamed primarily in what is now Shaanxi.7 Could it be that, in this instance, Meng Tian includes the Xiong-nu among the Rong or the Di? Could it be that Meng-Tian first drove out the Rong and the Di from land south of where the wall was to be built, and then, after beginning construction of the wall, drove the Xiongnu from a strip of land north of the wall? If so, was the main body of the Xiongnu within that land before Ming Tien drove them out, or did he just drive out some Xiongnu that perhaps dwelled in the area during favorable seasons when the pasturage was good? Could there be other possibilities as well? Nicolo Di Cosmo in his book Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History (c. 2002) states:8 "The attack on the nomads (hu) is explicitly mentioned in two of the passages [quoted from the Shi chi (Shi ji)-the same as our first and second here], whereas the third [our fourth passage here] refers to Jung (Rong) and Ti (Di), which in this case are simply archaic names [by the time of the Ch'in (Qin) Dynasty] to refer generically to northern peoples. It is generally conceded that the Hsiung-nu were among the 'Hu,'; although the absence of any reference to them may also reflect their relative lack of power and cohesion at this time." John Man in his book The Great Wall (c. 2008) is of a different opinion. According to Man, it was not the Xiongnu that had to be chased from the Ordos. He writes:9   "The two tribes chased out by Meng Tian, the Rong and Di, were buffers between the Qin and the Xiongnu. So Tumen [Touman, chieftain of the Xiongnu] pulled his people back, and spent years building up a secure power base beyond the Gobi. It was not the First Emperor who was threatened, precisely the other way around."     The weights of the arguments seem to be about equal on both sides of the issue. However, both Di Cosmo and man are in agreement that the pressure put on the Xiongnu by the First Emperor and his general Meng Tian gave the Xiongnu the incentive to attain greater unity, organization, and military strength under a single leader. Nicola Di Cosmo writes in his Ancient China and Its Enemies:10 "...the expedition of Meng T'ien forced the Hsiung-nu [Xiongnu] to leave their pasture lands, and Modun's [Modun = son of Touman] creation of an independent military force emerged out of the heightened military mobilization of Hsiung-nu society, as some men took up arms and became professional soldiers. The rise of Modun corresponded to the centralization of power..." In his book, China: A History (c. 2009), John Keay writes:   "Deprived of valuable grazing, and with informal trade across thee new frontier restricted, the herdsmen beyond it for once made common cause. Effective leadership came courtesy of the Xiongnu, a tribe or lineage that rapidly became the nucleus of a new confederacy."11
210 BCE	The first Emperor of the Qin died. He was succeeded by his son Hu Hai Son. Qin Shi Huang died at the age of fifty. He had swallowed too many mercury pills that the court physicians had prepared to make him immortal. He did not leave a will. By tradition, his eldest son Fusu (Fu-su?) should have inherited the throne. But the Prime Minister Li Si (Li Szu) and the chief eunuch Zhao Gao (Chao Kao) forged a will saying that Fusu and General Meng Tian should die. They feared that, if Fusu became emperor, then they would lose power; and they feared and hated Meng Tian who was Fusu's favorite general. Believing the will to be authentic, Fusu and Meng Tian dutifully committed suicide. Qin Shi Huang's younger son Hu Hai Son became emperor that same year at the age of 21. Hu Hai Son's posthumous name is Qin Er Shi (Ch'in Erh Shih, "Second Generation Qin"). As emperor, Qin Er Shi became so dependent on the eunuch Zhao Gao for advice that he did whatever Zhao told him to do.1
210-209 BCE	Touman tried to have his son Modun killed; Touman's plot was foiled; Modun had his father killed and succeeded him as leader of the Xiongnu confederacy.1 In Shi ji 110: The Account of the Xiongnu, Sima Qian writes2: "Touman's oldest son, the heir apparent to his position, was named Maodun [Modun], but the Shanyu also had a younger son by another consort whom he had taken later and was very fond of. He decided that he wanted to get rid of Maodun and set up his younger son as heir instead, and he therefore sent Maodun as hostage to the Yuezhi nation. Then, after Maodun had arrived among the Yuezhi, Touman made a sudden attack on them. The Yuezhi were about to kill Maodun in retaliation, but he managed to steal one of their best horses and escape, eventually making his way back home. His father, struck by his bravery, put him in command of a force of 10,000 cavalry.   "Maodun had some arrows made that whistled in flight and used them to drill his troops in shooting from horseback. 'Shoot wherever you see my whistling arrow strike!' he ordered, 'and anyone who fails to shoot will be cut down!' Then he went out hunting for birds and animals, and if any of his men failed to shoot at what he shot at, he cut them down on the spot. After this, he shot a whitling arrow at one of his best horses. Some of his men hung back and did not dare shoot the horse, whereupon Maodun at once executed them. A little later he took an arrow and shot at the horse, whereupon Maodun at once executed them. A little later he took an arrow and shot at his favorite wife. Again some of his men shrank back in terror and failed to discharge their arrows, and again he executed them on the spot. Finally he went out hunting with his men and shot a whistling arrow at one of his father's finest horses. All his followers promptly discharged their arrows in the same direction, and Maodun at last knew that at last they could be trusted. Accompanying his father, the Shanyu Touman, on a hunting expedition, he shot a whitling arrow at his father and every one of his followers shot a whistling arrow in the same direction and shot the Shanyu dead. Then Maodun executed his stepmother, his younger brother, and all the high officials of the nation who refused to take orders from him, and set himself up as the new Shanyu.
209 BCE	Rebellions against the second Qin emperor arose and fell. There were a number of rebellions against the rule of Qin Er Shi and his advisor Zhao Gao. They were all crushed due to Qin military superiority.1
208 BCE	Descendents of royal families of former states rebel. The descendants of the royal families of the former Yan, Zhao (Chao), Qi (Ch'i) and Wei states rose in rebellion against the Qin Dynasty in the name of restoring their states. In Wu (in present-day Jiangsu province), General Xiang Liang (Hsiang Li-ang) started an uprising as well and installed Mi Xin (Mi Hsin) as King Huai II of Chu. General Liu Bang went to join Xiang Liang and served under the Chu state. After Xiang Liang was killed in action at the Battle of Dingtao (Ting-tao), King Huai II sent Xiang's nephew Xiang Yu (Hsiang Yu) and Song Yi (Sung Yi) to lead an army to attack the Qin forces and help Zhao. Liu Bang was granted the title of "Marquis of Wu'an" by King Huai II of Chu and put in charge of an army to attack Qin. The king promised that whoever managed to enter Guanzhong (Kwan-chung, heartland of Qin) first would be granted the title of "King of Guanzhong". 1
208-202 BCE	Xiongnu Empire in 202 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. Modun created a Xiongnu Empire—he expanded Xiongnu territory in all directions. In Shi ji 110, Sima Qian writes1 that, soon after Modun (Maodun, Motun) became the Shanyu of the Xiongnu, the Dong Hu (Tong Hu)—"Eastern Barbarians" that were a tribe or confedaracy of nomad warriors inhabiting mainly a part of eastern Mongolia and western Manchuria—sent an envoy to Modun asking him for his favorite horse, one that could run 1,000 li in one day. Maodun consulted his ministers. They all declared that the horse belonged to the Xiongnu people, and they told him not to give it away. But Modun gave it to the Dong Hu. Soon afterwards, another Tong Hu envoy came, this one asking him for his favorite consort. Again, Modun conceded to the request over his minister's objections who were now saying that they should attack the Dong Hu instead. After this, the Dong Hu began to invade Xiongnu lands to the west of them. Then the Dong Hu sent an envoy to Modun saying that Modun had no use for a certain uninhabited area that was "1,000 li square and laid between the Xiongnu and the Dong Hu. The envoy asked Modun if the Dong Hu could have "this wasteland" for themselves. Modun consulted his ministers who then told him that they should let the Dong Hu have it since it was of no use to the Xiongnu. This time, Modun flew into a rage, declaring that "land is the basis of the nation." He then executed all of his ministers who had advised him to give the land away. After that, he immediately launced a surprise attack against the Dong Hu. The Dong Hu were completely unprepared to defend themselves. Their leader was killed, his subjects were taken prisoner, and their domestic animals were seized. Next, according to Sima Qian:2 "Maodun [Modun] rode west and attacking and routing the Yuezhi [Yeuh-chih], and annexed the lands of the ruler of Loufan and the ruler of Boyang south of the Yellow River. Thus he recovered possession of all the lands which the Qin general Meng Tian had taken from the Xiongnu; the border between his country and the Han now followed the old line of dedences south of the Yellow River, and ftom there he marched into the Chaona and Fushi districts and then invaded Yan and Dai.   "At this time the Han forces were stalemated in battle with the armies of Xiang Yu, and China was exhausted by warfare. Thus Maodun was able to strengthen his position, massing a force of over 300,000 crossbowmen." After digressing to discuss the structure of the Xiongnu government of leaders and some Xiongnu customs, Sima Qian returns to the topic of Modun's early conquests:3 "Shortly after the period described above, Maodun launched a seies of campaigns to the north, conquering the tribes of Hunyu [Huün-yu], Qushe [Ch'ü-yi], Dingling [Ting-ling], Gekun [Ko-k'un], and Xinli [Hsin-li]. Thus the nobles and high ministers of the Xiongnu were all won over by Maodun, considering him a truly worthy leader." Citing not only Shi Ji 110 but also Shih chih chu-yi 110 and Shih chih chu-yi 2319, Han Shu 94A, and Han Shu 3753, Di Cosmo writes:4 "In the north, Modun subjugated peoples known as the Huün-yu, Ch'ü-yi, Ting-ling, Ko-k'un, and Hsin-li, who were located in northern Mongolia and western Siberia." Christian writes:5   "His [Modun's] power now reached to the Han defensive lines that crossed the Ordos. He extended it to the north by defeating several tribes of pastoralists and hunter-gatherers in central and southern Siberia. Domination of the north Mongolian borderlands gave the Hsiung-nu access to the furs and other goods of the Siberian forest lands and also the metals of the Mongolian Altai. Victories in the Mongolian steppes, the forest lands of the north, and the borderlands of the Ordos and eastern Kansu [southwest of the Ordos], built up Motun's [Modun's] authority, wealth and prestige so that:'the nobles and high ministers of the Hsiung-nu [Xiongnu] were all won over by Motun [Modun], considering him a truly noteworthy leader.'
207 BCE	Qin forces defeated by rebels; Qin emperor Qin Er Shi committed suicide; Ziyin succeeded him. Qin (Chi'n) military forces were severely defeated by general Xiang Yu in the Battle of Julu (Chulu). 200,000 Qin soldiers surrendered to Xiang Yu. He had them all buried alive. Soon afterwards, Qin Er Shi was forced by Zhao Gao to commit suicide. In December, Zha Gao made Ziyin (Chih Yin), a close relative of Qin Er Shi, the new emperor. Ziyin is posthumously known as Qin San Shi (Ch'in San Shih).1
Winter (Jan-Mar) 206 BCE	Qin Emperor surrendered to the Zhu rebels; Qin Dynasty ended; China was split into two kingdoms: Western Chu and Han. The new Qin emperor Ziyin murdered Zha Gao. When the Chu general Liu Bang penetrated Guanzhong and attacked the Qin capitol, Xiangyang,Emperor Ziyin surrendered to him. When Xiang Yu arrived at Hangu Pass, the eastern gateway to Guanzhong, he saw that the pass was occupied by Liu Bang's troops, a sign that Guanzhong was already under Liu Bang's control. Liu Bang's general Cao Wushang sent a messenger to see Xiang Yu, saying that Liu Bang would become King of Guanzhong in accordance with King Huai II's earlier promise, while Ziyin would be appointed as Liu's Chancellor. Xiang Yu was furious after hearing that. Xiang Yu invited Liu Bang to attend a banquet while secretly preparing to kill him during the feast. However, Xiang's uncle Xiang Bo managed to spoil the plan. At the feast, Liu Bang became aware of Xiang Yu's true intentions and escaped back to his camp. Liu Bang and his troops evacuated from Xianyang and retreated westwards later. Xiang Yu paid no attention to Liu Bang's presumptive title and led his troops into Xianyang. Xiang ordered the execution of ex-Emperor Ziying and his family, as well as the destruction of the Epang Palace by fire. Xiang Yu offered King Huai II the more honourable title of "Emperor Yi of Zhu." Xiang Yu proclaimed himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" and split the former Qin empire into Eighteen Kingdoms. The land of Guanzhong, rightfully Liu Bang's according to King Huai II's earlier promise, was granted by Xiang to three surrendered Qin generals instead. Liu Bang was relocated to Hanzhong (Han-chung) in the remote, Bashu region (in what is now Sechuan Province) and granted the title of "King of Han."1
206 BCE (after winter)	Liu Bang returned to Guanzhong. While Xiang Yu was away suppressing the rebellion in Qi, Liu Bang led his troops to seize Guanzhong and several lands, including Xiang Yu's capital city of Pengcheng (present-day Xuzhou) at one point. The forces of Western Chu and Han then engaged in a power struggle for supremacy over China for about five years, known as the Chu-Han contention, with victories and defeats for both sides in various battles.1
203 BCE	The war turned in favor of Liu Bang. Initially, Western Chu had an advantage over Han, but the tide turned in favour of the latter in 203 BC, after Xiang Yu and Liu Bang came to an armistice, known as the Treaty of Honggou, that divided China into east and west under their domains respectively. Soon afterwards, Liu Bang renounced the treaty and attacked Xiang Yu, taking Xiang by surprise and scoring a series of victories in the following battles.1
202 BCE	Liu Bang totally defeated Xiang Lu and became the first emperor of the Western Han dynasty. Liu Bang's forces defeated Xiang Yu's at the Battle of Gaixia. Xiang Yu committed suicide and Western Chu surrendered. Liu Bang unified China. With the support of his subjects, he became the first emperor of the Western Han dynasty. He later became known as Emperor Gao (Kao) or Gaozu (Kao-tsu).1
201 BCE	Modern Taiyuan prefecture in Shanxi state, China. Click on image to view source. Modern Shouzhou and Taiyuan prefectures in Shanxi state. Click on image to view source. The Han marquis King Xin in Mayi surrendered to the Xiongnu and joined them after they attacked Mayi. The Emperor Gaozu (Kao-tsu, Liu Bang) had demoted King Xin [Hsin], the former king of Hann, down to a marquis. Xin's capital was at Mayi [Ma-yi]. (The city of Mayi is in what is now in the modern prefect of Shuozhou,in the modern state of Shanxi (Shansi). See maps at right.) The Xiongnu surrounded Mayi and attacked in great force. King Xin sent an appeal for military aid to Emperor Gaozu in Taiyuan. (The city of Taiyuan (T'ai-yuan) is now the capital of both the modern state of Shanzi and the modern prefecture of Taiyuan in Shanxi. The prefecture of Taiyuan is south of the prefecture of Shouzhou (Shou-chou), with the modern prefecture of Xinzhou (Hsin-chou) between them. See maps at right.) But Gaozu simply sent back a reprimand, telling Xin he should have more courage. After receiving this reply, Xin surrendered to the Xiongnu and made a pact with the them. Xin planned a rebellion against the emperor in Taiyuan. The Xiongnu, with King Xin on their side, went south across Mount Juzhou (Kou-shou Mountains), invaded the and marched as far as the city of Jinyang in the Taiyuan commandery.1
200 BCE	Emperor Liu Bang led an army against the Xiongnu; he was defeated and made tributary concessions to the Xiongnu. The Emperor Liu Bang personally led two hundred thousand Chinese troops to attack the Xiongnu and put a stop the rebellion of King Xin. Thirty percent of his soldiers lost their fingers from frost-bite during the march to reach the Xiong-nu forces in Shanxi province. When the emperor and his army made contact with the Xiong-nu, the number of Xiong-nu they first encountered seemed relatively small. The Xiongnu hastily retreated from the advancing Han. The Han gave pursuit with the emperor himself and his vanguard at the front of their formation. The emperor and his vanguard were well ahead of the rest of the Han forces when they reached the fortified frontier town of Bing Qeng (Ping-ch'eng, modern Pingluchen, about 150 kilometers west of Ta-t'ung) near Mount Baideng (Pai-teng). They entered the town. Suddenly, they found themselves surrounded by a great number of Xiongnu archers mounted on horses outside the walls of the town. The Xiongnu cavalry was swirling around the town in circles. The horses were of four different colors. Each color was for a different Xiongnu army. The Xiongnu retreat had been a ruse to entrap the emperor. The emperor and his vanguard remained surrounded in the town by the four Xiongnu armies for seven days without hope of rescue. Then one of the emperor's counselors named Zhen Bing (Chen Ping) managed to reach the wife of Modun. He boasted to her of the number and beauty of the emperor's concubines and hinted to her that they might well replace her if Modun advanced and captured the emperor's palace in Taiyuan. The empress used her influence on her husband. Modun made a deal with the emperor. The emperor and his men were allowed to leave the town in safety. In exchange, the emperor and his army returned peacefully to Taijuan while Modun and his four armies did not withdraw until they stripped the surrounding country of every head of livestock and all the pieces of property that their spare horses could carry.1
199 BCE	Emperor Liu Bang was confronted by rebellious aristocrats of three northern principalities; he sought further appeasement with Modun. Xin, the ruler of the principality of Hann who had defected to Modun's side in the conflict with the Emperor Liu Bang, became a Xiongnu general. He and some other Chinese aristocrats of semi-autonomus principilaties continued to make attacks against the emperor regardless of the agreement that had been made between Motun and Liu Bang. One of the other Chinese aristocratics was Chen Xi who was the prime minister of Dai Principality and was a friend of Xin. Others were of the principalities of Yen-men and Yun-chung. The emperor came to realize that he must take great measures to appease Modun.1
198 BCE	The Chinese-Xiongnu "Peace-Through-Kinship" Treaty of 198 BCE Han Emperor Liu Bang made a long-lasting peace treaty with Modun. It was to apply to future sovereigns on both sides. The treaty was designed by Liu Ching, a counselor of Liu-Bang who had advised Liu Bang in 200 BCE, before Han army was launched into the expedition that resulted in the humiliating Han defeat at Mount Baideng, not to go against the Xiongnu.1 The Han acknowledged their military inferiority to the Xiongnu by agreeing: to supply the Xiongnu with regular gifts of silk, wine, grain, and other goods; to have a royal Han princess, the oldest daughter of the Han emperor, marry the shanyu; to treat the Xiongnu as diplomatic equals; to formally relinquish control of the Ordos region north of the defensive walls built during the Ch'in Dynasty Period. In return, the Xiongnu agreed to not raid or invade the realms of the Han dynasty. Modun did marry a royal princess who was allegedly the daughter of the emperor. (The original annals of the Han Dynasty reveal that she was not in fact the eldest daughter of Liu Bang. The empress would not allow it.) The treaty actually offered much to both sides:2 the Han and the Xiongnu were mutually guaranteed that there would be no aggression from the other side. With Han support, the Xiongnu was able to control most nomadic tribes north of the Han border and prevent them from making incursions into Han territory. The Xiongnu elite were provided by the Chinese with a stable stream of luxury goods gathered and concentrated from the whole of China by the Han government. The redistribution of these goods by the shanyu kept the tribal leaders united under his sovereignty and also provided generous awards to those who served the shanyu personally. Possession of and access to more of such items enhanced a person's personal prestige as well as providing luxury. Also, the counselor Liu Ching had a hidden agendas implicitly in the treaty:3 a corruption campaign--the Han would periodically send to the Xiongnu those valuable luxury goods that they craved. This would soften them and make them dependent. an indoctrination campaign--the Han would send special teachers to the Xiongnu who would instruct them in the rules of proper conduct according to Confucius. By marrying the Han emperor's daughter, the Xiongnu shanyu Modun became the Han emperor's son-in-law. Then that made Modun's son, his heir-apparent, the grandson of the son-in-law. According to Confucious, the heir-apparent would then be in a position inferior to the emperor, his grandfather. He would then be a subject of the emperor. By extension, when Modun's son became shanyu, all of his subjects would foremostly be subjects of the emperor. That was the plan, anyway.
June 1, 195 BCE	The first Han Emperor, Liu Bang, died. He was succeeded by his son Liu Yang who became Emperor Hui of Han. Emperor Liu Bang (Liu Pang) died from a lingering illness. The illness began when he was recovering from a wound. The wound was from a stray arrow that had struck him while he was in a battle against the rebel Ying Bu (Ying Pu). He was posthumously given the name Emperor Gaozu (Kao Tsu) of Han. He was succeeded as emperor by his son the crown prince Liu Ying (b. 210 BCE) who became Emperor Hui of Han.1 But the new emperor was dominated by his mother, the empress dowager Lü Zhi (Lü Chih). She was the effective ruler of the Han Empire during his reign.2
192 BCE	Modun sent an apparent marriage proposal to the ageing dowager empress Lu. She humbly rejected it. Trade with the Han Empire was becoming increasingly desired by the Xiongnu. Han resentment had been building up against the Xiongnu. With each treaty renewal, the amount of tribute paid by the Han Empire to the Xiongnu increased substantially. At the same time, Xiongnu there continued to be raids into the empire. They were on a lesser scale than they were before the treaty of 198 BCE, but they were just as frequent. They were usually made by Han renegades or tribal people that the shanyu could not well control, but they made the Han Chinese feel as if they weren't getting the benefits due to them in return for their tributes. The resentment peaked when, in 192 BCE, the shanyu Modun sent a message to the dowager empress Lu suggesting that, since they were both widowed and of the same age, they might do well living in each others company. The dowager empress felt so offended by the message that she wanted to prepare her Han army for war. But her more prudent counselors and ministers talked her out of going to war against the Xiongnu. Instead, she sent a reply to the shanyu saying that he would not be happy living with her since her teeth and hair were falling out and that she was not worthy of his lowering himself. She stated that her country had done nothing wrong and that she hoped that he would not do harm to it. In his book, A History of China (c. 2009)1, John Keays suggests that a more subtle interpretation of the Shanyu's original message regards the phrase "to exchange the things I have for the things that I do not have" as expressing a wish to do more commercial trade with the Han Empire. The Hans' hidden agenda of making the Xiongnu more dependent on Chinese produce was being realised. With the renewal of the "peace-through-kinship" treaty between the Han Empire and the Xiongnu, access to Han markets along the frontier became an increasingly significant part of the treaty.
188 BCE	Emperor Hui of Han died. He was succeeded by his son Liu Gong who became the Emperor Qianshao of Han. Emperor Hui of Han died of an unspecified illness. His mother the Empress Dowager Lu had him replaced by one of his sons, Liu Gong, who is posthumously known as Emperor Qianshao (Ch'ian Shao) of Han. Emperor Hui had not had any sons by his wife, Empress Zhang Yan (Chang Yan). The mothers of all his sons were concubines. But Empress Zhang Yan had adopted Liu Gong. At the time when he became emperor, Liu Bang believed that the Empress Zhang Yan was his true mother by birth. And he was not yet old enough to take on the full duties and responsibilities of an emperor. His grandmother Lü, now the Grand Empress Dowager, continued to be the effective ruler of the Han Empire.1
184 BCE	Emperor Qianshao of Han died. He was succeeded by his half-brother Liu Hong who became Emperor Houshao of Han. Some time before the Emperor Quianshao, common name Liu Gong, died, he learned that his real mother was not Empress Zhang Yan, but instead was a concubine of his father. He also found out that his grandmother, the Grand Empress Dowager Lü, had instigated the Empress Zhang Yan to kill hs real mother. He was heard to remark that, when he grew up, Lü would pay for this. Lü found out about what he had learned and what he had said about it. She had him secretly imprisoned and had it publicly announced that he was ill and could not receive anyone. After a time, she declared that he was insane and she had him deposed. Finally, she had him killed and had his younger half-brother, Liu Hong succeed him. Liu Hong is posthumously known as the Emperor Houshao.1
180 BCE	The Grand Empress Dowager Lü died; Emperor Houshao was deposed and replaced by Prince Liu Heng of Dai who became Emperor Wen of Han (Personal name: Heng). The Grand Empress Dowager Lü died of an illness. Soon afterwards, the high ministers of the Han government joined together in a coup. They exterminated the Lü clan, the powerful family of the former grand empress dowager. They deposed Emperor Houshao and made his uncle, Prince Liu Heng of Dai, the new emperor. By the end of the same year, Emperor Houshao was executed. Prince Liu Heng of Dai is posthumously known as Emperor Wen of Han.1
177 BCE, Fifth-month	Xiongnu invasions, 177 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. The Xiongnu entered undisturbed the Baidi and Shang commanderies. They left after a very large army of Han Chinese cavalry arrived nearby. The Baidi (Pai-ti) Commandery was a military district in the southwest part of the "Great Bend" of the Yellow River. The Shang Commandery was a military district in the northern part of what is now the modern province of Shaanxi (Shensi), in the "Great Bend." The Xiongnu forces were led by the "Wise King of the Right" who governed the western half of the Xiongnu empire, but was subordinate to the shanyu. After they entered these commandaries, they pillaged the non-Chinese "foreign" people living there as frontier guards for the Han Chinese. The Xiongnu finally withdrew from the two commanderies after a Han force of eight-five thousand cavalry arrived in the Kaonu (Kao-nu) district, northeast of the present-day city of Yenan in Shaanxi province. This is just a typical example of such temporary Xiongnu invasions, each of which involved the nomadic incursion of tens of thousands of Xiongnu for a period of several months. Such invasions were against the "peace-through-kinship" treaties which forbade any raids. The Chinese continued to deliver tributes to the Xiongnu in spite of such violations. The ability of the Xiongnu to threaten the Han Empire and the failure of the appeasement strategy to prevent actual attacks made the situation at the north and northwestern frontiers a virtually permanent crisis.1
175 BCE	The Xiongnu defeated the Yuezhi and dominated all of what is now the modern province of Xinjiang (Sinkiang). Modun sent his son Laoshang (proper name: Jizhu1) as "Wise King of the Right," i.e., as commander of the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu) forces and governor of the Xiongnu people in the western side of the Xiongnu empire, to defeat the Yuezhi (Yeüh-chih). This task was accomplished. The leader of the Yuezhi was killed and his skull was made into a drinking cup.2 In a letter to the Han emperor Wen, Modun stated:   "With the assistance of Heaven, the talent of officers and soldiers, and the strength of horses the wise king of the right has succeeded in destroying the Yüe-chih, and in unspairingly killing them or bringing them into submission. Lou-lan, the Wu-sun, the Hu-chieh, and other twenty-six states contiguous to them are now part of the Hsiung-nu. All the people who draw the bow now become one one family and the northern region has been pacified."3     The defeat of the Yuezhi, submission of the Loulan (Lou-lan), the Wusun (Wu-sun), the Huzhieh (Hu-chieh), and twenty-six states contiguous to them gave the Xiongnu (Hsiung-nu) control of the prosperous oasis-city-states of Sinkiang as well as contact with the rulers of Ferghana and Sogdia.4 (Ferghana was spread across what is now part of central and eastern Kyrgyzstan and eastern Tajikistan, east of the Syr Darya (Jaxartes) River. Sogdia was centered in what is now southeastern Uzbekistan, between the Amu Darya (Oxus) and Syr Darya (Jaxartes) Rivers. Sogdia also included part of what is now western Kyrgistan and western Tajikistan.)
174 BCE	Modun, the shanyu of the Xiongnu, died; his son Lao Shang (proper name: Jizhu) succeeded him as shanyu.1
173 BCE	The Yuezhi overran the Wusun. In 173 BCE,1 the Yuezhi attacked and overran the Wusun. Nandoumi, the kunmo (supreme chieftain) of the Wusun, was killed. Some time later, his infant son Liejiaomi was left in the wild. Liejiaomi was eventually found by the Xiongnu. According to a legend recorded in the Hanshu (an ancient Chinese history text that is sequel to Sima Quien's Shiji), Liejiaomi was suckled by a she-wolf and fed meat by ravens while he was in the wild. Liejiaomi was eventually found by the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu's shanyu Jizhu (a.k.a. Lao Shang) adopted Liejiaomi and raised him. When Liejiaomi came of age, Jizhu saw to it that he was made the kunmo of the Xiongnu like his father had been. Jizhu also made Liejiaomi the commander of the far western region of the Xiongnu Empire as a vassal of the Xiongnu.2
167 BCE	Xiongnu invasion, 167 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. The Xiongnu penetrated what is now Shaanxi (Shensi) province. They went as far as Heiqong (Hwei-chung) where they burned an imperial palace before turning back.1
Winter, 166 BCE	The Xiongnu attacked the western border fortifications at Zhuna (Chu-na) and defeated the Han forces there. The chief commandant of Baidi (Pei-ti) county died in the attack. Baidi was located in what is now to the southeast of today's county of Ku-yuan county in the modern province of Ningxia, within the greater region bordered by the "great bend" of the Yellow River.1
162 BCE	Yuezhi migration, 175 to 162 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. The region of the Ili River and Lake Balkash today. Click on image to enlarge it. The Yuezhi are defeated once again by the Xiongnu; they migrate to the Ili River Valley. In 162 BCE, the Xiongnu with Jizhu as their Shanyu defeated the Yuezhi for the final time. (The time before this was in 175 BCE.) The Yuehzhi then migrated to a region of the Ili Valley near the mountain lake, Issyk Kul. (The Ili River flows out of Laike Baikal in what is now a southeastern corner of Kazakhstan, relatively near the modern border of China. The river flows from modern Kazakhstan into modern China.) There they drove out a people known as the Sai who were probably a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas. The Sai moved south. The Yuezhi made the area their home and remained there until 132 BCE when they were driven out by the vengeance-seeking Wusun.1
c.160 BCE	Xiongnu Empire in 160 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. In about 1601 BCE, Jizhu (a.k.a. Lao Shang or Laoshang), shanyu of the Xiongnu since 974 BCE, died. He was succeeded as shanyu by Kungkhan (a.k.a. Junchen or Chun-chin). Kungkhan reigned until he himself died in 126 BCE.
Winter, 158 BCE	Xiongnu invasion, 158 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. The Xiongnu invaded two military districts on the frontier of the Han Empire. They left several months later. Thirty thousand Xiongnu invaded the Shang Commandery and another thirty thousand invaded the Yunjung Commandery. To prevent more incursions along the frontier by the Xiongnu, Emperor Wen sent out six whole armies; each of six other military placements on the frontier received one of these armies as reinforcement. Several months later, the Xiongnu left and the six armies were recalled.1
156 BCE	Emperor Wen of Han (personal name: Liu Heng) died. He was succeeded as emperor of China by his son Emperor Jing of Han (personal name: Liu Qi) Emperor Wen had reigned since 180 BCE. Emperor Jing reigned until his own death in 141 BCE.1
142 BCE	Xiongnu attack, 142 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. The Xiongnu attacked the Great Wall toward Yenmen, near Datung (Ta-t'ung), north of what is now Shanxi province.1
141 BCE	Emperor Jing of Han (personal name: Liu Qi) died. He was succeeded by his son Emperor Wu of Han (personal name: Liu Che) Emperor Jing had ruled since 156 BCE. Emperor Wu reigned until he himself died in 87 BCE.1
c.138 BCE	Zhang Quian began his journey to the Yuezhi. A Han palace official named Zhang Qian (Chang Ch'ian) set out in c.138 BCE with a small military escort to find the Yuezhi and initiate talk with them about an anti-Xiongnu alliance between them and the Han Empire. But he was intercepted by the Xiongnu shortly after he entered their territory and was kept prisoner by them for ten years.1 (He eventually did find the Yuezhi, and he returned to the Han Empire in 126 BCE.)
135 BCE	Emperor Wu of Han came of age and signed another renewal and revision of the "peace-through-kinship" treaty with the shanyu of the Xiongnu.1
135 BCE	Han Empire attack against the Yue kingdom in Fukien, 135 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. The Han Empire made its first attacks against the non-Chinese "barbarian" Yue kingdom in what is today the province of Fukien, on the mainland across the Taiwan Straight from Taiwan.1
134 BCE	The Han emperor attempted to ambush the shanyu of the Xiongnu; the Xiongnu repudiate the treaty with the Han Empire. Since the signing of the new treaty with the Xiongnu the previous year, there had been debate among the Emperor Wu's ministers, advisers, and generals over whether the treaty with the Xiongnu should be maintained or, instead, war should be made against the Xiongnu. The emperor finally decided that it was time for war. The fact that the treaty had been signed the previous year and an enormous tribute had recently been given to the Xiongnu meant that the Xiongnu would not be expecting an attack. A plan was made to lure the shanyu of the Xiongnu into an ambush in the town of Mayi, north of what is now the province of Shanxi (Shansi).1 Doing his part in the plan, a merchant of Mayi pretended to defect to the Xiongnu. He told the Xiongnu that he would murder the top men in the town of Mayi, about 100 kilometers south of the Great Wall, so the Xiongnu could pillage the town with impunity. The merchant then returned to Mayi, killed a condemned prisoner, and hung the prisoner's head outside the wall. The merchant then sent a message to the shanyu saying that the head was the governor's. After receiving the message, the shanyu rode to the town, leading 100,000 Xiongnu warriors. But about 50 kilometers from the town, the shanyu noticed that the fields were full of animals but there wasn't a single person in sight. He became suspicious and attacked a beacon tower. There was one Chinese official in the tower. Under the threat of death, this official told the shanyu about the 100,000 troops hiding in the valley, waiting to ambush the shanyu and his men. The shanyu then led his men back to his own territory.2
132 BCE	The Wusun invaded the Ili River Valley and drove out the Yuezhi. In 132 BCE, Liejiaomi remained kunmo (supreme chieftain) of the Wusun. He received permission from Kungkhan, shanyu of the Xiongnu, to attack the Yuechi in the Ili River Valley. This was in great part to satisfy his need for revenge for the Yuechi's attack against the Wusun in 173 BCE in which his father was killed. He lead an army of Wusun horse archers into the valley. They succeeded in taking the Yuezhi by surprise and routing them. The Yuehzhi fled to a region called Dayuan, probably what was then southwestern Furghana, where they remained peacefully until perhaps the spring of 131 BCE.1 (Ferghana was spread across what is now part of central and eastern Kyrgyzstan and eastern Tajikistan, east of the Syr Darya (Jaxartes) River.) The Wusun occupied the Ili River Valley and made it their home for at least five centuries.2
131 BCE	The Yuezhi entered Sogdia from Furghana The Yuezhi entered a region called Kangju, probably the Zeravshan Valley in what was then Sogdia.1 (The Zeravshan Valley is in what is now Tajikistan.2 Sogdia was centered in what is now southeastern Uzbekistan, between the Amu Darya (Oxus) and Syr Darya (Jaxartes) Rivers. Sogdia also included part of what is now western Kyrgistan and western Tajikistan.)
Autumn 129 BCE	Chinese invasions, 129 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. 129 BCE: Four Han expeditions, each consisting of an army of cavalry, were launched to attack the Xiongnu. One of these expeditions was succesful. Two were completely defeated. In spite of the Han Empire's attempted ambush of the shanyu and the consequent repudiation of the Han-Xiongnu peace treaty by the Xiongnu in 134 BCE, there had been no major incidents of war between that time and the autumn of 129 BCE. Xiongnu raids into Han territory simply continued as before. There was no significant retaliation for these raids by Han armies. The cross-border trade between Chinese merchants and the Xiongnu still went on, unabated. But then, in the autumn of 129 BCE, four Han armies set out to attack the Xiongnu, each one from a different place. Wei Qing (Wei Ch'ing), general of Light Cavalry, departed from Shanggu (Shang-ku); Gungsun He (Kung-sun Ho), general of Light Chariots, set out from Yunzhung (Yun-chun); Grand Palace Grandee Gungsun Ao (Kung-sun Ao), appointed cavalry general, departed from the Dai (Tai) commandery; commandant of the palace guards Li Guang (Li Kuang) was made general of the Imperial Cavalry and set out from Yenmen (Yen-men). Each of the four commanders' armies consisted of cavalry. Only one of the four expeditions was successful. Wei Qing penetrated deeply into Mongolia, going as far as the Ongun River. He reached Lung-ch'eng where ritual sacrifices were made to Heaven and where the Shanyu held large gatherings of Xiongnu chieftains and officers. Here Wei Qing killed or captured several hundred of the Xiongnu. On the way to Lung-ch'eng and back, he also attacked Xiongnu encampments that he came across on his path. The expeditions conducted by the other three generals were complete failures. Gungsun Ao lost seven thousand cavalry; Li Guang was taken prisoner but managed to escape and return home. After returning from their defeats, both Gungsun Ao and Li Guang had to ransom their lives to avoid being executed for their failures. They were then degraded to the rank and class of commoners. Gungsun Ho had no success either, simply because he failed to encounter and engage the enemy.1 General Wei Qing's exceptional success is not so surprising when one considers his background. He was originally a horse-keeper for a marquess who gave him as a horse-keeper to the emperor along with a young female singer-dancer who became the emperor's favorite consort. He was at the same time an expert marksman with the bow. He first came to the emperor's special attention after a Grand Princess, the mother of the deposed Empress Chen Jiao, had him kidnapped to spite the emperor's favorite consort. Wei Qing escaped with the help of other palace horse-keepers who were his friends. The emperor recognized that Wei was gifted and, to spite the princess, made him the head official of the household at Jianzhang Palace, away from where the Grand Princess might do him more harm. Later, the emperor made Wei Qing his closest lieutenant/consul. After a few more years, he promoted Wei to general of the Light Cavalry. Wei Qing's background with horses and bows enabled him to adopt the same military styles and tactics as those used by the Xiongnu horse archers. He was also exceptionally brave and had excellent leadership qualities.2
128 BCE	Xiongnu invasions, 128 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. The Xiongnu made a counter-offensive to the Han raids of 129 BCE. Wei Qing attacked them again. A Xiongnu army crossed the border, killed the governor of the Liaoxi (Liao-hsi) commandery, and invaded the Yenmen commandery where they killed or captured several thousand Chinese people before returning to their own territory. A month later the Xiongnu attacked the Shangku and Yuyang commanderies.1 General Wei Qing attacked the Xiongnu again, killing thousands.2
127 BCE	General Wei Qing drove the Xiognu out of the Ordos region and land south of it. In 127 BCE, Wei Qing, heading north, crossed the Yellow River and reached the pass of Gaoque (Kao-chüeh) of the Yin Mountain chain, north of the Ordos region, killing or capturing two thousand three hundred Xiongnu. After this, he went into the Ordos region and the region south of that where needed and drove the Xiongnu out of the entire area within the bite of the Great Bend of the Yellow River. He also built a bridge over the northern segment of the Great Bend of the river and attacked and defeated the local chieftain Puni (P'u-ni) in the vicinity of Fuli (Fu-li), killing Puni's elite warriors and capturing three thousand and seventy-five Xiongnu "scouts".1
late 127 or early 126 BCE	Han commandaries along the Xiongnu border, 126 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. Xiongnu and Han Empires, 126 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. The Shuofeng (Shuo-fang) commandery was established at the new northwest corner of the Han Empire.The administrative center of this military district was at Shuofeng (Shuo-fang). It mostly covered the northwest corner of the Ordos region. But it extended to a distance north of the Yellow River, to the Great Wall. The Shang and Bedi commandaries were both extended west to the western segment of the Great Bend of the Yellow River.1 One hundred thousand peasants were settled northwest of the Ordos, in the Shuofeng commandery, in this same year, 127 BCE.2
126 BCE	Kungkhan (a.k.a. Junchen or Chun-chin), shanyu of the Xiongnu, died. He was succeeded by El'chishye (a.k.a. Tsin-Xien). Khungkhan had reigned since c.160 BCE. El'chisye reigned until 114 BCE.1
126 BCE	Xiongnu invasion, 126 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. The Xiongnu raided the Dai (Tai) commandary. They killed the grand administrator of this military district.1
125 BCE:	Xiongnu invasions, 125 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. The Xiongnu invaded the Dai, Dingxiang, and Shang commandaries. They killed or carried away several thousand Chinese people.1
Winter/Spring 123 BCE	Wei Qing's military expedition in 123 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. Wei Qing attacked the Xiongnu north of Dingxiang. With six other generals subordinate to him, Wei Qing led an army of over one hundred thousand cavalry over several hundred li northward from Dingxiang (Ting-hsiang) to attack the Xiongnu.1
122 BCE	Xiongnu invasion, 122 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. Ten thousand Xiongnu invaded the Shanggu (Shang-ku) commandery.1
Winter/Spring 121 BCE	Wei Qing's military expedition in winter/spring 121 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. General Huo Qubing attacked the Xiongnu. Huo Qubing (Huo Ch'üe-ping) led ten thousand cavalry for over one thousand li from Longxi (Lung-shi) province before engaging the Xiongnu in combat. On the way, they crossed the Yanzhi (Yen-chih) Mountains, in what is now Gansu province, west of today's Yongqang (Yung-ch'ang) county and southeast of today's Shandan (Shan-dan) county . (What was then Longxi (Ling-shi) province, during the Han dynasty, is now a region south of the upper course of the Wei River, in southern Gansu (Kansu) province.)1 Huo Qubing was a nephew of General Wei Qing.2
Summer 121 BCE	Huo Qubing's military expedition in summer 121 BCE Click on image to enlarge it.   Xiongnu Empire in 120 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. Summer 121 BCE: General Huo Qubing struck again, this time with the Heqi marquis Gongson; they were very successful. The Wise King of the Right surrendered to the Han and yielded to them control of the Gansu corridor. Huo Qubing (Huo Ch'üe-ping) and the Heqi (Ho-ch'i) marquis Gongson (Kung-sun) led a force of tens of thousands through two thousand li north of Longxi (Lung-hsi) and Beidi (Pei-ti). They passed Zhuyen (Chü-yen) in western Inner Mongolia and engaged the Xiongnu in battle in the Qilian (Ch'i-lien) Mountains (also known as the Nan Shan Mountains). They killed or captured over thirty thousand Xiongnu, including seventy minor chieftains. (Zhuyen was then a county southeast of today's Edzin Gol, in the province of Inner Mongolia.)1 (The Qilian Mountains are also known as the Nan Shan Mountains. They are located east of the "Big Bend" of the Yellow River.2 Edzin Gol is the Mongolian name of the Ejin River, also known as the Hei He (Black River). Its source is in the northern side of the Qilian Mountains. It flows north into Outer Mongolia.3 David Christian in his book A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia writes:   "In 121 BCE, the Hun-yeh king, the regional Hsiung-nu commander of the Kansu corridor, surrendered to the Han after repeated defeats at the hands of Ho Ch'ü-ping. The Han now secured permanent control of the Kansu corridor, which opened for the first time a secure pathway towards the west."4     From the web page "Hexi Corridor" of Wikipedia (June 27, 2007) we have:   "Hexi Corridor or Gansu Corridor (...pinyin: Hexi Zoulang; Wade-Giles: Hehsi Tsoulang [more accurately, the Wade-Giles spelling is: He-hsi Ts'ou-lang]) refers to the historical route in Gansu province of China. As part of the Northern Silk Road running northwest from the bank of the Yellow River, it used to be the most important passage from North China to Xinjiang and Central Asia for traders and the military... "In 121 BCE, Han forces expelled the Xiongnu from Hexi Corridor and even Lop Nur, when Xiongnu's King Hunye surrendered to Huo Qubing in 121 BCE. The Han acquired a territory stretching from the Hexi Corridor to Lop Nur, thus cutting the Xiongnu off from their Qiang allies."     (Lop Nur is now a salt marsh in northeastern Xinjiang (Sinkiang) province where there was once a salt lake. It is centered at 40° 10' N 90° 35' S.5)
120 BCE	Han expedition against the Kunming (K'un-ming) tribes of what is now western Yunnan.1
119 BCE	Xiongnu Empire in 118 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. Huo Qubing defeated the Xiongnu's Wise King of the Left; the Xiongnu withdrew to the northern steppe of Outer Mongolia. The entire Han army was mobilized and a major expedition against the Xiongnu was launched. The expedition was led by General Huo Qubing. Departing from the Tai commandery, the expedition advanced over two thousand li, penetrating Outer Mongolia. Before turning back, troops in the expedition reached the Tienyen (T'ien-yen) Mountains, southeast of the larger Khangai Mountains, and the fortified Xiongnu town of Zhaoxin (Chao-hsin), west of the Tienyen Mountains. Huo Qubing defeated the Wise King of the Left who administered the eastern half of the Xiongnu Empire and, along with the Wise King of the Right, was second-in-command only to the Shanyu. The Wise King of the Left and his generals all fled and over seventy thousand Xiongnu were killed or captured. Following this, the majority of the Xiongnu people withdrew to the northern steppe of Outer Mongolia (today's nation of Mongolia). The Shanyu's court was no longer located south of the Gobi Dessert.1
117 BCE	The Tonhuang (Tun-huang) and Zhangyeh (Chang-yeh) commandaries were founded in what is now the western half of Gansu (Kansu) province.1
117 BCE	The Han government established its salt and iron monopolies. These were one source of revenue to pay for military and territorial expansions.1
115 BCE	The Wuwei (Wu-wei) and Zhiuquan (Chiu-ch'üan) commandaries were founded in what is now the western half of Gansu (Kansu) province.1
114 BCE	El'chishye, shanyu of the Xiongnu, died. He was succeeded by Uvey who reigned until 105 BCE.1
112-111 BCE	Han Empire in 110 BCE Click on image to enlarge it. Han expeditions conquered the Yue kingdom in what is now the province of Kwangtun and the Yue kingdom in North Vietnam; their lands were divided into nine commanderies.1
110 BCE	A Han Chinese military expedition attacked the Yue in Fukien.There was a military expedition against the Yue kingdom in what is now the province of Fukien, on the Chinese mainland-coastland west of the island of Taiwan. The Yue were suppressed.1
104 BCE	Han Chinese general Gungsun An (Kung-sun An) was ordered to build Shouzhiangqeng (Shou-chiang-ch'eng, "The City for Receiving Surrender"). The new citadel was built in Inner Mongolia, to the north of the Yin Mountains (north of the northern segment of the Big Bend of the Yellow River). It was built to formally receive Xiongnu noblemen who surrendered to the Han.1 Han Chinese general Gungsun An (Kung-sun An) was ordered to build Shouzhiangqeng. 1Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 244.
109 BCE	Han Chinese military expeditions invaded northern and central Korea. The kingdom of Tien in western Yunan was suppressed.1
108 BCE	The Han Empire established four commandaries in northern and central Korea.1
105 BCE	Uvey, shanyu of the Xiongnu since 114 BCE, died; he was succeeded by Uyshilar who reigned until 102 BCE.1
104-103 BCE	The Han Chinese general Li Guangli (Li Kuang-li) was dispatched west in command of an expedition to attack Ferghana. Han diplomats then came into contact with the kingdoms of the Tarim Basin.1 The Han Chinese general Li Guangli (Li Kuang-li) was dispatched west in command of an expedition to attack Ferghana. 1Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 244.
c.104-103 BCE	Frontier fortifications and outposts were extended in the northwest and also north of the Big Bend. A line of forts and stations was built from the Zhiuquan (Chiu-ch'uan) commandery to the Dunhuang (Tun-huang)commandary, and from there to the Yumen Pass, northwest of Dunhuang, in today's western Gansu (Kansu). Also, a line several thousand li long of walled outposts and watch stations was built from the frontier post of Wuyuan (Wu-yuan) Commandary, north of the northern segement of the Big Bend of the Yellow River, to what today is the northern extension of the Lang Mountains in the province of Inner Mongolia.1 Frontier fortifications and outposts were extended in the northwest and also north of the Big Bend. 1Di Cosmo, op. cit., pp. 244-45.
102 or 101 BCE	Uyshilar, shanyu of the Xiongnu since 105 BCE, died; he was succeeded by Kulighu who reigned until 101 or 100 BCE.1
102 BCE	The Xiongnu "Wise King of the Right" invaded the Zhiuquan (Chiu-ch'uan) and Zhangyi (Chang-yi) commandaries. Several thousand people were abducted by the Xiongnu during the invasion.1 102 BCE: The Xiongnu "Wise King of the Right" invaded the Zhiuquan (Chiu-ch'uan) and Zhangyi (Chang-yi) commandaries. 1Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 245.
101 or 100 BCE	Kulighu, shanyu of the Xiongnu since 102 or 101 BCE, died and was succeeded by "Ti-Qu" (Xiongnu name unknown) who reigned until 96 BCE.1
99 BCE	An expedition of thirty thousand cavalry led by General Li Guangli (Li Kuang-li) was dispatched from the Zhiuquan (Chiu-ch'uan) commandery; it ended in disaster. It set out to attack the Xiongnu "Wise King of the Right" in the Tien Shan Mountains. It was initially successful. Over ten thousand Xiongnu were captured or killed. But then Li Guangli was surrounded by Xiongnu. He survived uncaptured but six out of every seven of his men were killed.1 99 BCE: An expedition of thirty thousand cavalry led by General Li Guangli (Li Kuang-li) was dispatched from the Zhiuquan (Chiu-ch'uan) commandery; it ended in disaster. 1Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 245; Sima Qian and Watson, Burton, Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II (1996), pp. 160-61.
99 BCE	An expedition led by cavalry commandant Li Ling was dispatched north from Juyan. It was defeated. It consisted of five thousand special infantry and cavalry. They marched north for over one thousand li from Juyan and engaged the Shanyu in battle. They killed or wounded over ten thousand Xiongnu. But they ran out of provisions and the men began to scatter and flee for home. The Xiongnu surrounded and captured Li Ling. But the Shanyu treated him with high honor. He gave him his own daughter as a wife.1 99 BCE: An expedition led by cavalry commandant Li Ling was dispatched north from Juyan. It was defeated. 1Sima Qian and Watson, Burton, Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II (1996), p. 161.
97 BCE	General Li Guangli (Li Kuang-li) led an expedition of sixty thousand cavalry and one hundred thousand infantry north from Shuofeng commandery to attack the Shanyu of the Xiongnu. In the end, they surrendered to the Shanyu. Before the expedition engaged the Xiongnu in combat, it was joined by ten thousand men led by Liu Bode. The Shanyu responded to ntheir advance by sending his family and wealth far to the north of the Yuwu (Hsu-wu) River. He himself waited south of the river with ten thousand cavalry and then engaged Li Guangli and his army in battle. Li Guangli's lines broke and he began to retreat. The retreating Han fought a running battle with the Xiongnu for ten days. Then Li Guangli learned that his family had been killed by his own government on charges of witchcraft. The demoralized general then surrendered to the Shanyu with all of his remaining men. Only one or two out of every thousand men who had been in the expedition ever made it back to China.1 97 BCE: General Li Guangli (Li Kuang-li) led an expedition of sixty thousand cavalry and one hundred thousand infantry north from Shuofeng commandery to attack the Shanyu of the Xiongnu. In the end, they surrendered to the Shanyu. 1Sima Qian and Watson, Burton, Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II (1996), p. 161.
97 BCE	General Han Yue led an expedition of thirty thousand infantry and cavalry north from Wuyuan (Wu-yuan) commandary. They failed to kill or capture any Xiongnu.1 97 BCE: General Han Yue led an expedition of thirty thousand infantry and cavalry north from Wuyuan (Wu-yuan) commandary. They failed to kill or capture any Xiongnu. 1Sima Qian and Watson, Burton, Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II (1996), p. 161.
96 BCE	Ti-Qu, shanyu of the Xiongnu since 101 or 100 BCE died and was succeeded by Hulugu who reigned until 85 BCE.1
85 BCE	Hulugu, shanyu of the Xiongnu since 96 BCE, died and was succeeded by Huyandi who reigned until 68 BCE.1
68 BCE	Huyandi (Hu-yen-ti), shanyu of the Xiongnu, died. He was succeeded by Xuluquanqu (Hsu-lu-ch'uan-ch'u) who reigned until 60 BCE.1
60 BCE	Xuluquanqu (Hsu-lu-ch'uan-ch'u), shanyu of the Xiongnu, died. He was replaced by Woyanqudi (Wo-lu-chu-ti) who reigned until 58 BCE.1

FOOTNOTES TO MAIN TEXT

By 350 BCE: Recognition of Xiongnu

¹Christian, D., A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia, Vol. I (Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers, 1998), pp. 128, 184; Legg, S., The Barbarians of Asia (New York: Dorset Press, 1970.), pp. 75-76.

²Christian, op. cit., pp. 128, 184; ElanguageSchool.net--Xiongnu. According to both of these sources, the Ordu region was the original base of the Xiongnu.

³Legg, op. cit., p. 75. Legg considers Mongolia to have been the prime domain of the Xiongnu.

⁴Christian, op. cit., pp. 128, 184; Wikipedia--"Donghue people"; Wikipedia--"Xiongnu".

⁵Christian, op. cit., pp. 128, 184; Grousset, op. cit., pp. 27-28; Mongolia: A Country Study--"Xiongnu and Yuehzhi"; "The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia" by Craig Benjamin; EconomicExpert.com--"Yuezhi".

⁶Christian, op. cit., pp. 128, 184; Grousset, op. cit., p. 29; Wikipedia--"Wusun"; EconomicExpert.Com--"Wusun"; All Experts-Encyclopedia--"Wusun"; MapsOf.net--"Migration route of Wusun in Western Han Dynasty".

⁷Sima Qian and Watson, Burton (tr.), Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty (Hong Kong & New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 26. I leave out much of the middle of the paragraph quoted, as I indicate in the quotation with "..."; the clarifications placed in between lower-case brackets ("[ ]") are entirely my own insertions.

⁸Sima Qian and Watson, Burton (tr.), Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II Revised Edition (Hong Kong & New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 129.

⁹Sima Qian and Watson, Burton (tr.), Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II Revised Edition (Hong Kong & New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 137.

¹⁰Wikipedia--"Xiongnu".

¹¹Legg, op. cit., p. 77.

¹²Christian, op. cit., p. 184; Legg, op. cit., p.76; Grousset, op. cit., p. 28 (in regard to the Yuezhi only--on p. 29, Grousset considers it plausible that the Wusun originally spoke an Indo-European language, but does not endorse the notion as firm fact.); EconomicExpert.com--"Yuezhi";Wikipedia--"Yuezhi". (In Wikipedia--"Wusun" there are some reservations given about accepting the notion that the Wusun were originally Indo-European.)

¹³Wikipedia--"Quanrong".

256 BCE: End of the Zhou Dynasty

¹Wikipedia--"Zhou Dynasty"

221 BCE: Beginning of the Imperial Qin (Ch'in) Dynasty

¹The Anchor Atlas of World History, Volume 1: From the Stone Age to the Eve of the French Revolution, (New York: Anchor Books/Doubleday, 1974), p. 41; Wikipedia--"Qin Dynasty"; Wikipedia--"Qin Shi Huang".

220-209 BCE: The Reign of Xiongnu Ruler Touman (Toumen).

¹AllEmpires.com--"The Xiongnu Empire" by Ishan

215-214 BCE: General Meng Tian of the Qin drove barbarian tribes out from the Ordos, and he began construction of a "Great Wall".

¹The main text of the translation given here is from Sima Qian and Watson, Burton (tr.), Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II Revised Edition (Hong Kong & New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 133-34. The substitute words in lower-case brackets ("[ ]") are from the translation in Di Cosmo, Nicola Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 174.

²Sima Qian and Watson, Burton (tr.),Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty (Hong Kong & New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993), pp. 52-53.

³ Di Cosmo, Nicola Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002), p. 130; Di Cosmo quotes a passage in an anonymous letter sent to the King of Yen, and recorded in the Chan-kuo ts'e; he argues that, in the letter, "...the name 'Yueh' is used as a generic term for the non-Chinese peoples of the south, while 'Hu' describes non-Chinese peoples of the north. We can thus reasonably say that, by the end of the fourth century B.C., the term 'Hu' applied to various northern ethnic groups (tribes, groups of tribes, and even states) speaking different languages and generally found living scattered across a wide territory."

⁴Sima Qian and Watson (trans.), Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty (Hong Kong & New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 79.

⁵Ibid., pp. 207-08.

⁶www.ChinaKnowledge.Org --"Chinese History - Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Rong ".

⁷www.ChinaKnowledge.org - History--"Non-Chinese peoples and neighboring states: Di".

⁸Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 175.

⁹Man, John. The Great Wall (Philadelphia: De Capo Press, 2008), p. 52.

¹⁰Di Cosmo, op. cit., pp. 178-79.

¹¹Keay, John, China: A History (New York: Basic Books, 2009), p. 131.

210 BCE: The Qin Emperor died.

¹Wikipedia--"Qin Shi Huang".

210-209 BCE: Touman tried to have his first son Modun killed; Touman's plot is foiled; Modun had his father killed and succeeded him as Shanyu of the Xiongnu confederacy.

¹Christian, op. cit., p. 209 gives 209 BCE as the year that "Mo-tun" (Maodun) assumed the title of "shan-yu" (shanyu). Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 186, also gives 209 BCE as the year for this. I allow for one year between the event of Touman giving Modun as a hostage to the Yeuzhi and the event of Modun taking the title of shanyu.

² Sima Qian and Watson, Burton (tr.), Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II Revised Edition (Hong Kong & New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 134.

209 BCE: Rebellions against the second Qin emperor arose and fell.

¹Wikipedia--"Qin Er Shi".

208 BCE: Descendents of royal families of former states rebelled.

¹Wikipedia--"Liu Bang".

208-202 BCE: Modun created a Xiongnu Empire—he expanded Xiongnu territory in all directions.

¹Sima Qian and Watson, Burton (tr.), Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty II Revised Edition (Hong Kong & New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993), p. 135.

²Ibid., pp. 135-36.

³Ibid., p. 138.

⁴Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 188.

⁵Christian, op. cit., pp. 185-86.

207 BCE: Qin forces defeated by rebels; Qin emperor committed suicide. Ziyin succeeded him.

¹Wikipedia--"Qin Er Shi"; Wikipedia--"Battle of Julu"; Wikipedia--"Xiang Yu"; Wikipedia--"Ziying".

206 BCE: Qin Emperor surrendered to the Zhu rebels; end of Qin Dynasty; China was split into two kingdoms: Western Chu and Han.

¹Wikipedia--"Ziying"; Wikipedia--"Xiang Yu"; Wikipedia--"Emperor Gaozu of Han"; "Liu Bang and Xiang Yu" by Chung Yoon-Ngan.

206 BCE: Liu Bang returned to Guanzhong.

¹Wikipedia-"Liu Bang".

203 BCE: The war turned in favor of Liu Bang.

¹Wikipedia-"Liu Bang".

202 BCE: Liu Bang totally defeated Xiang Lu and became the first emperor of the Western Han dynasty.

¹Wikipedia-"Liu Bang".

201 BCE: The Han marquise King Xin in Mayi surrendered to the Xiongnu and joined them after they attacked Mayi.

¹ Sima Qian and Watson, Burton, Records of the Grand Historian [Shi ji]: Han Dynasty II, Revised Edition, p. 138 [Shi ji 110]; Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 190—Di Cosmo cites the Chung-kuo li-shih ti-t'u chi and gives details not found in Shi ji 110; www.ImperialChina.org -- "The Huns, Part I" by Ah Xiang, first paragraph under the sub-heading "Huns Attacking Han Chinese."

200 BCE: Emperor Liu Bang led an army against the Xiongnu; he was defeated and made tributary concessions to there Xiongnu.

¹Most of the details are from Legg, op. cit., p. 92; but these have been combined here with some details from: Sima Qian and Watson, Burton, Records of the Grand Historian [Shi ji]: Han Dynasty II, Revised Edition, pp. 138-39 [Shi ji 110]; Di Cosmo, op. cit., pp. 190, 192; Christian, op. cit., p. 186; and www.ImperialChina.org -- "The Huns, Part I" by Ah Xiang, first paragraph under the sub-heading "Huns Attacking Han Chinese."

199 BCE: Emperor Liu Bang was confronted by rebellious aristocratics of three northern principalities; he sought further appeasement with Modun.

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 192; www.ImperialChina.org -- "The Huns, Part I" by Ah Xiang, first paragraph under the sub-heading "Huns Attacking Han Chinese."

198 BCE: The Chinese-Xiongnu Treaty of 198 BCE

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 193.

²Christian, op. cit., p. 187; Di Cosmo, op. cit., pp. 193-94.

³ Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 194.

195 BCE: The first Han Emperor, Liu Bang, died. He was succeeded by his son Liu Yang.

¹Wikipedia--"Emperor Gaozu of Han".

²Wikipedia--"Emperor Hui of Han"; Wikipedia--"Empress Dowager Lü".

192 BCE: Modun sent an apparent marriage proposal to the ageing dowager empress Lu. She humbly rejected it. Trade with the Han Empire was becoming increasingly desired by the Xiongnu.

¹Keay, op. cit., pp. 133-34.

188 BCE: Emperor Hui of Han died. He was succeeded by his son Liu Gong who became the Emperor Qianshao of Han.

¹Wikipedia--"Emperor Hui of Han"; Wikipedia--"Liu Gong"; Wikipedia--"Empress Dowager Lü".

184 BCE: Emperor Qianshao of Han died. He was succeeded by his half-brother Liu Hong who became Emperor Houshao of Han.

¹Wikipedia--"Liu Gong"; Wikipedia--"Empress Dowager Lü".

180 BCE: The Grand Empress Dowager Lü died; Emperor Houshao was deposed and replaced by Prince Liu Heng of Dai who became Emperor Wen of Han.

¹Wikipedia--"Emperor Houshao of Han"; Wikipedia--"Empress Dowager Lü".

177 BCE, Fifth month: The Xiongnu entered undisturbed the Baidi and Shang commanderies. They left after a very large army of Han Chinese cavalry arrived nearby.

¹ Sima Qian and Watson, Burton, Records of the Grand Historian [Shi ji]: Han Dynasty II, Revised Edition, p. 140 [Shi ji 110]; Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 204.

175 BCE: The Xiongnu defeated the Yuezhi and dominated all of what is now the modern province of Xinjiang (Sinkiang). The Yuezhi began a series of migrations westwards.

¹"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia" by Craig Benjamin; Wikipedia--"Laoshang Chanyu.

²Christian, op. cit., p. 187; Grousset, op. cit., p. 27. Christian gives Modun's son's name, Lao Shang; Christian gives the son's title, "Wise King of the Right;" Christian also gives the date 175 BCE for the events. Both sources credit Modun's sun with the defeat of the Yeuh-chi and mention the decapitation of the Yeuh-chih's leader.

³Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 196; Di Cosmo gives the complete text as printed here. Christian, op. cit., p. 187 gives a one-sentence summary of the letter.

⁴Christian, op. cit., p. 187.

174 BCE: Modun, the shanyu of the Xiongnu, died; his son Lao Shang succeeded him as shanyu.

¹Christian, op. cit., p. 187; Wikipedia--"Laoshang Chanyu.

173 BCE: The Yuezhi overran the Wusun.

¹Transoxiana.org--"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia" by Craig Benjamin. Benjamin cites the Han Shu 61 4B.

²Wikipedia--"Wusun" (The opening paragraph has an error, making a statement about the Wusun that applies to the Yuezhi only--it was the Yuezhi, not the Wusun, who migrated to the Ili Valley to get away from the Xiongnu. But the later section under the heading "History" has it straight.)

167 BCE: The Xiongnu penetrated what is now Shaanxi (Shensi) province.

¹Grousset, op. cit., p. 34.

166 BCE: The Xiongnu attacked the western border fortifications at Zhuna (Chu-na) and defeated the Han forces there.

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 200.

162 BCE: The Yuezhi are defeated once again by the Xiongnu; they migrate to the Ili River Valley.

¹Transoxiana.org--"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia" by Craig Benjamin.

c.160 BCE: Jizhu (a.k.a. Lao Shang or Laoshang), shanyu of the Xiognu since 974 BCE, died. He was succeeded as shanyu by Kungkhan (Junchen).

¹ According to Wikipedia--"Chanyu", Jizhu died in 161 BCE. According to Wikipedia--"Laoshang Chanyu, Jizhu died in 160 or 158 BCE. According to ²Transoxiana.org--"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia" by Craig Benjamin, Jizhu died in 158 BCE.

158 BCE: The Xiongnu invaded two military districts on the frontier of the Han Empire. They left several months later.

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., pp. 200-201.

156 BCE: Emperor Wen of Han (personal name: Heng) died. He was succeeded as emperor of China by his son Emperor Jing of Han (personal name: Qi)

¹Wikipedia--"Emperor Wen of Han"; Wikipedia--"Emperor Jing of Han".

142 BCE: The Xiongnu attacked the Great Wall toward Yenmen, near Tatung, north of what is now Shanxi province.

¹Grousset, op. cit., p. 34.

141 BCE: Emperor Jing of Han (personal name: Qi) died. He was succeeded by his son Emperor Wu of Han (personal name: Che)

¹Wikipedia--"Emperor Jing of Han"; Wikipedia--"Emperor Wu of Han".

c.138 BCE: Zhang Quian began his journey to the Yuezhi.

¹Keay, op. cit., p. 134.

135 BCE: Emperor Wu of Han came of age and signed another renewal and revision of the "peace-through-kinship" treaty with the shanyu of the Xiongnu.

¹Keay, op. cit., p. 135.

135 BCE First attack by the Han Empire against the "barbarian" Yue kingdom in what is today the province of Fukien, on the mainland across the Taiwan Straight from Taiwan.

¹Gernet, Jaques, A History of Chinese Civilization (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1985.), p. 118.

¹Keay, op. cit., p. 135.

²Man, The Great Wall (Cambridge, Massachusetts: De Capo Press, 2008), pp. 64-65.

132 BCE: The Wusun invaded the Ili River Valley and drove out the Yuezhi.

¹Transoxiana.org--"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia" by Craig Benjamin.

²Wikipedia--"Wusun".

131 BCE: The Yuezhi entered Sogdia from Furghana

¹Transoxiana.org--"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia" by Craig Benjamin.

²"Zeravshan." The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2008. Encyclopedia.com. (May 31, 2010). http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Zeravsha.html.

129 BCE: Four Han armies of cavalry each attack the Xiongnu at a different place from each other. One army is succesful. Two are completely defeated.

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 237; Wikipedia--"Wei Qing".

²Wikipedia--"Wei Qing"

128 BCE: The Xiongnu made a counter-offensive to the Han raids of 129 BCE.

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 237.

²Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 237; Wikipedia--"Wei Qing".

127 BCE: General Wei Qing drove the Xiognu out of the Ordos region and land south of it.

¹Di Cosmo, p. 127.

Late 127 or early 126 BCE: The shuofeng commandery was established north of the ordos region by the Han Empire.

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 238.

² Gernet, Jaques, op. cit., p. 121.

126 BCE: Kungkhan (a.k.a. Junchen or Chun-chin), shanyu of the Xiongnu, died. He was succeeded by El'chishye (a.k.a. Tsin-Xien).

¹Wikipedia--"Chanyu".

126 BCE: The Xiongnu raided the Dai (Tai) commandary.

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 238.

125 BCE The Xiongnu invaded the Dai, Dingxiang, and Shang commandaries.

¹Di Cosmo, op. cit., p. 239.

123 BCE: Wei Qing attacked the Xiongnu north of Dingxiang.

¹Di Cosmo, p. 239.

122 BCE: Ten thousand Xiongnu invaded the Shangku (Shang-ku) Commandery.

¹Di Cosmo, p. 239.

Winter/Spring 121 BCE: General Huo Qubing attacked the Xiong-nu in Mongolia.

¹Di Cosmo, p. 239.

²Wikipedia--"Huo Qubing".

Summer 121 BCE: General Huo Qubing struck again, this time with the Heqi marquis Gongson; they were very successful.

¹Di Cosmo, p. 239.

²Wikipedia--"Qilian Shan".

³Wikipedia--"Ejin River".

⁴Christian, op. cit., p. 197.

⁵Wikipedia--"Lop Lake"

120 BCE: Han expedition against the Kunming (K'un-ming) tribes of what is now western Yunnan.

¹Gernet, op. cit., p. 118.

119 BCE: Huo Qubing defeated the Xiongnu's Wise King of the Left.

¹Di Cosmo, p. 240.

117 BCE: The Tonhuang (Tun-huang) and Zhangyeh (Chang-yeh) commandaries are founded in what is now the western half of Gansu (Kansu) province.

¹Gernet, op. cit., p. 121.

117 BCE: The Han government established its salt and iron monopolies.

¹Gernet, op. cit., p. 140; Monk, op. cit., p. 241. Gernet gives the year the monopolies were esatablished as 117 BCE but Monk gives it as 119 BCE.

115 BCE: The Wuwei (Wu-wei) and Zhiuquan (Chiu-ch'üan) commandaries are founded in what is now the western half of Gansu (Kansu) province.

¹Gernet, op. cit., p. 121.

114 BCE: El'chishye, shanyu of the Xiongnu, died. He was succeeded by Uvey.

¹Wikipedia--"Chanu".

112-111 BCE: Han expeditions conquered the Yue kingdom in what is now the province of Kwangtun and the Yue kingdom in North Vietnam; their lands were divided into nine commanderies.

¹Gernet, op. cit., p. 118.

110 BCE: A Chinese military expedition attacked the Yue in Fukien.

¹Gernet, op. cit., p. 118.

109 BCE: Han Chinese military expeditions invaded and conquered northern and central Korea.

¹Ibid., p. 118.

108 BCE: The Han Empire established four commandaries in northern and central Korea.

¹Ibid., p. 118.

105 BCE: Uvey, shanyu of the Xiongnu since 114 BCE, died; he was succeeded by Uyshilar who reigned until 102 or 101 BCE.

¹Wikipedia--"Chanyu" (July 7, 2010 edition)

102 or 101 BCE: Uyshilar, shanyu of the Xiongnu since 105 BCE, died; he was succeeded by Kulighu who reigned until 101 or 100 BCE.

¹Wikipedia--"Chanyu" (July 7, 2010 edition)

101 or 100 BCE: Kulighu, shanyu of the Xiongnu since 102 or 101 BCE, died and was succeeded by "Ti-Qu" (original Xiongnu name unknown) who reigned until 96 BCE.

¹Wikipedia--"Chanyu"

96 BCE: Ti-Qu, shanyu of the Xiongnu since 101 or 100 BCE died and was succeeded by Hulugu who reigned until 85 BCE.

¹Wikipedia--"Chanyu" (July 7, 2010 edition)

85 BCE: Hulugu, shanyu of the Xiongnu since 96 BCE, died and was succeeded by Huyandi (Hu-yen-ti) who reigned until 68 BCE.

¹Wikipedia--"Chanyu" (July 9, 2010 edition)

68 BCE: Huyandi (Hu-yen-ti), shanyu of the Xiongnu, died. He was succeeded by Xuluquanqu (Hsu-lu-ch'uan-ch'u) who reigned until 60 BCE.

¹Wikipedia--"Chanyu" (July 9, 2010 edition)

60 BCE: Xuluquanqu (Hsu-lu-ch'uan-ch'u), shanyu of the Xiongnu, died. He was replaced by Woyanqudi (Wo-lu-chu-ti) who reigned until 58 BCE.

¹Wikipedia--"Chanyu" (July 9, 2010 edition)

 

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

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• Di Cosmo, Nicola. Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 369 pages. Paperback, ISBN-13: 978-0-54382-8; Hardback, ISBN-13: 978-0521-77064-4.

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• Grousset, Rene. The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia. New Bruswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1970. Hardback, SBN: 8135-0627-1.

• Keay, John. China: A History. New York: Basic Books, 2009. 578 pages. Hardback, ISBN-13: 978-0-465-01580-1.

• Legg, Stuart. The Barbarians of Asia: The Peoples of the Steppes from 1600 B.C.. New York: Dorset Press, 1970. 350 pages. Hardback, ISBN-10: 0-88029-534.

• Lovell, Julia. The Great Wall: China Against the World 1000 BC—AD 2000. London: Atlantic Books, 2006. 428 pages. Hardback, ISBN-10: 1-84354-2129.

• Man, John. The Great Wall. Philadelphia: Da Capo Press, 2008. 335 pages. Paperback, ISBN-13: 978-0-306-81767-0.

• Sima Qian and Watson, Burton (tr.), Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty I (Revised Edition). Hong Kong & New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993. 513 pages (including preface). Paperback, ISBN-10: 0-231-08165-0.

• Sima Qian and Watson, Burton (tr.), Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty: Han Dynasty II (Revised Edition). Hong Kong & New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993. 523 pages (including preface). Paperback, ISBN-10: 0-231-08167-7.

• Sima Qian and Watson, Burton (tr.), Records of the Grand Historian: Qin Dynasty. Hong Kong & New York: Renditions-Columbia University Press, 1993. 263 pages (including preface). Paperback, ISBN-10: 0-231-08169-3.

On the Web

• ImperialChina.Com--"The Huns - Part I"

• ImperialChina.Com--"The Huns - Part II"

• AllEmpires.com--"The Xiongnu Empire" by Ishan

• Chinaknowledge.org Home Page

• ChinaKnowlege.org/"History--Foreign peoples in and around China" --a table of historical barbarian peoples/tribes with links to specific pages about each, respectively!

• ChinaKnowlege.de--"Chinese History - The Xiongnu"

• ¹Silk-Road.com--"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia" by Craig Benjamin

• "The Division and Destruction of the Xiongnu Confederacy" by Rafe de Crespigny

• "Cultures and Ethnic Groups West of China in the Second and First Millennia B.C." by Jettmar Karl

• Silk-Road.com--"The Xiongnu Culture--Third Century BCE"

• Silk-Road.com--"Archaeology of the Hsiung-nu in Russia - new discoveries and some problems" by S. Minyaev

• Silk-Road.com--"The Barbarian Invaders" by John Masson Smith, Jr.

• Elanguages.net--"Xiongnu"

• "The Division and Destruction of the Xiongnu Confederacy" by Rafe de Crespigny"

• "Cultures and Ethnic Groups West of China in the Second and First Millennia B.C." by Jettmar Karl

• Silk-Road.com--"The Xiongnu Culture--Third Century BCE"

• Elanguages.net--"Xiongnu"

• Virtual Art Exhibit--"The Xiongnu"

• TheJadeRoad.com--"Mao Dun Treasures"

• New World Encyclopedia--"Xiongnu"

• CountryStudies.com--"Xiongnu and Yuezhi"

• EconomicExpert.com--"Yuezhi"

• ChinaKnowledge.de--Chinese History--"Yuezhi"

• Transoxiana.org--"The Yuezhi Migration and Sogdia" by Craig Benjamin

• WildfireGames--"The Yuezhi Migration 162-126 BC"

• EconomicExpert.Com--"Wusun"

• All Experts-Encyclopedia--"Wusun"

• MapsOf.net--"Migration route of Wusun in Western Han Dynasty"

• Wikipedia--"Chanyu" (Includes a table listing all the Shanyus (Chanyus) of the Xiongnu since Touman and the years of their reigns.)

• Wikipedia--"Han Dynasty"

• Wikipedia--"Laoshang Chanyu

• Wikipedia--"Modu Chanyu"

• Wikipedia--"Ordos (culture)"

• Wikipedia--"Qin Dynasty"

• Wikipedia--"Wusun"

• Wikipedia--"Xiongnu"

• Wikipedia--"Yuezhi"

• Megaloceros.com--Chinese History--Warring States Period

• San Jose State University/Prof. Thayer Watkins--"The Warring States of Ancient China"

• Wikipedia--"Warring States Period"

• PaulNoll.com--Chinese Dynasty Maps

• "Homepage: A Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization" by Patricia Buckley Ebrey

• A Visual Sourcebook of Chinese Civilization--"Timeline and Maps"

• University of Montreal--"An Overview of Chinese History"

• ChinaHighlights.com--"Great Wall History Maps"